KTOSTBAISI D SCIENCE SEIIII.S. 



50 Ctfs^ 



^ T 

.P73 

I jix)W TO BECOME 

ENGINEER, 



^^CJ<:ssARV jn fitting ipoe the 
DUTIES OF THE CIVIL ENGINEEE. 

T>IE OPINIONS OF EMINENT AUTHORITIES, 
AND 

TilE COliRM-S OF i^TDM IN T!!E TECHNICAL mmi 



Gh/), W. .PLYMPTON, Avr^ B^K, (1.,E, 




I NEW YORK: 

\ D. VAXn" NOSTXiAND COMPANY'.. 

f ^?:'. iUlTItRAY AND ST* WAKP.JilJj'STIi.SJ?:'!-. 



THE VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. 

18mo, Boards. Price 50 Cents Each. 
Amply Illustrated when the Subject JDemands, 



No. 1.— CHIMNEYS FOR FURNACES, FIRE-PLACES, AND 
STEAM-BOILERS. By R. Armstrong, C. E. 
Second American edition. To which is appended 
an Essay on Higrh Chimneys, by Prof. L. Pinzger. 

No. 2.— STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. By Zerah Colburn. 
New edition, revised by Prof. R. H. Thurston. 

No. 3.- PRACTICAL DESIGNING OF RET AINING-W ALLS. 
By Arthur Jacob, A.B. Second edition, revised, 
with additions by Prof. W. Cain. 

No. 4.— PROPORTIONS OF PINS USED IN BRIDGES. By 
Charles Bender, C.E. 

No. 5.-VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. By W. F. Butler. 

Second edition, re-edited and enlarged by James 

L. Greenleaf, C. E. 
No. 6.— ON THE DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF 

STORAGE RESERVOIRS. By Arthur Jacob, A. 

B. Second edition, revised, with additions by E. 

Sherman Gould. 

No. 7.— SURCHARGED AND DIFFERENT FORMS OF RE- 
TAINING-WALLS. By James S Tate, C.E. 

No. 8.— A TREATISE ON THE COMPOUND ENGINE. By 
John Turnbull, jun. Second edition, revised by 
Prof. S. W. Robinson. 

No. 9.-A TREATISE ON FUEL. By Arthur V. Abbott, 
C.E. Founded on the original treatiseof C. Will- 
iam Siemens, D.C.L. 

No. lO.-COMPOUND ENGINES. Translated from the 
French of A. Mallet. Second edition, revised, 
with results of American Practice by Richard H. 
Buel, C.E. 

No. ll.-THEORY OF ARCHES. By Prof. W. Allan. 

No. 12.— A THEORY OF VOUSSOIR ARCHES. By Pi-of 

W. E. Cain. ^ 

No. 13.— GASES MET WITH IN COAL-MINES. By J. J. 
Atkinson. Third edition, revised and enlai*ged 
by Edward H. Williams, jun. 

No. 14.-FRICTI0N OF AIR IN MINES. By J. J. Atkinson. 

No. 15.— SKEW ARCHES. By Prof. E. W. Hyde, C.E. Il- 
lustrated. 

No. 16.— A GRAPHIC METHOD FOR SOLVING CERTAIN 
ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS. By Prof. George 
L. Vose. 

No. 17.— WATER AND WATER- SUPPLY. By Prof. W. H. 

Corfteld of the University College, London. 
No. 18.- SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE UTILIZATION. By 

Prof. VV. H. Corfield, M.A., of the University 

College. Loiid'iu. 



THE VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. 



piTo. 19.— STRENGTH OF BEAMS UNDER TRANSVERSE 
LOADS. By Prof. W. Allan, author of *' Theory 
of Arches." 

No. 20.— BRIDGE AND TUNNEL CENTRES. By John B. 
MeMaster, C.E. 

No. 21.— SAFETY VALVES. Second Edition. By Richard 
H. Buel, C.E. 

No. 22.— HIGH MASONRY DAMS. By John B. MeMaster, 
C.E. 

No. 23.— THE FATIGUE OF METALS UNDER REPEATED 
STRAINS. With various Tables of Results and 
Experiments, From the German of Prof. Ludwig 
Spangen burgh, with a Preface by S. H. Shreve, 
A.M. 

No. 24.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE TEETH OF 
WHEELS. By Prof. S. W. Robinson. Second 
edition, revised. 5 

No. 25.—ON THE THEORY AND CALCULATION OF CON- 
TINUOUS BRIDGES. By Mansfield Merriman, 
Ph.D. 

No. 26.— PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE PROPERTIES 
OF CONTINUOUS BRIDGES. By Charles 
Bender, C.E. 

No. 27.— ON BOILER INCRUSTATION AND CORROSION. 
By F. J. Rowan. 

No. 28.— TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY WIRE ROPES. 
Second edition. By Albert W. Stahl. U S N. 

No. 29.— STEAM INJECTORS. Translated from the French 
of M. Leon Pocliet. 

No. 30.— TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND THE MAG- 
NETISM OF IRON VESSELS. By Prof. Fair- 
man Rogers. 

No. 31.— THE SANITARY CONDITION OF DWELLING- 
HOUSES IN TOWN AND COUNTRY. By 
George E. Waring, jun. 

No. 32.— CABLE-MAKING FOR SUSPENSION BRIDGES. 
By W. Hildebrand, C.E. 

No. 33.— MECHANICS OF VENTILATION. By George W. 
Rafter, C.E. 

No. 34. -FOUNDATIONS. By Prof. Jules Gaudard, C.E. 
Second edition. Translated from the French. 

No. 35.— THE ANEROID BAROMETER : ITS CONSTRUC- 
TION AND USE. Compiled by George W. 
Plympton. Fourth edition. 

No. 36.— MATTER AND MOTION. By J. Clerk Maxwell, 
M.A. 

No. 37. -GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING ; ITS USES, 
METHODS, AND RESULTS. By Frank De 
Yeaux Carpenter, C.E. 

No. 38.— MAXIMUM STRESSES IN FRAMED BRIDGES. 
By Prof. William Cain, A.M., C.E. 



No. 39.— A HANDBOOK OF THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC 
TELEGRAPH. By A. E. Loring. 

No. 40.— TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY COMPRESSED 
AIR. By Robert Zahner, M.E. Second edition. 

No. 41.— STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. By William Kent, 
C.E. Second Edition. 

No. 42.— VOUSSOIR ARCHES APPLIED TO STONE 
BRIDGES, TUNNELS, CULVERTS, AND 
DOMES. By Prof. W^illiam Cain. 

No. 43.— WAVE AND VORTEX MOTION. By Dr. Thomas 
Craig, of Johns Hopkins University. 

No. 44.— TURBINE WHEELS. By Prof. W. P. Trowbridge, 
Columbia College. Second edition. Revised. 

No. 45.— THERMODYNAMICS. By Prof. H. T. Eddy, Uni- 
versity of Cincinnati, 

N^ 46,— ICE- MAKING MACHINES. From the French of 

^ M. Le Doux. Revised by Prof. Denton. 

^o, 47.— LINKAGES ; THE DIFFERENT FORMS AND 

USES OF ARTICULATED LINKS. By J. D. C. 

de Roos. 
No. 48.-THEORY OF SOLID AND BRACED ARCHES 

By William Cain, C.E. 
No. 49.— ON THE MOTION OF A SOLID IN THE FLUID. 

BylThomas Craig, Ph.D. 
No. 50.-DWELLING-HOUSES: THEIR SANITARY CON- 
: STRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENTS. By Prof. 

W. H. Corfield. 

No. 5L— THE TELESCOPE: ITS CONSTRUCTION, ETC. 
By Thomas Nolan. 

i No. 52.— IMAGINARY QUANTITIES. Translated from the 
j French of M. Argand. By Prof. Hardy. 

No. 53.-INDUCTION COILS: HOW MADE AND HOW 
I USED. Fifth edition. 

No. 54.— KINEMATICS OF MACHINERY. By Prof. Ken- 
nedy. With an introduction by Prof. R. H. 
Thurston. 

No. 55.— SEWER GASES : THEIR NATURE AND ORIGIN. 
By A. de Varona. 

No. 56.— THE ACTUAL LATERAL PRESSURE OF EARTH- 
WORK. By Benjamin Baker, M. Inst. C.E. 

No 57.— INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LIGHTING. A 
Practical Description of the Edison System. By 
L. H. Latimer, to which is added the Design and 
Operation of Incandescent Stations. By C. J. 
Field, and the Maximum Efficiency of Incandes- 
cent Lamps, by John W. Howell. 

No. 68.— THE VENTH.ATION OF COAL-MINES. By W. 

Fairley, ME., F.S.S., and Geo. J. Andr6. 
No. 59.— RAILROAD ECONOMICS ; OR, NOTES, WITH 

COMMENTS. By S. W. Robinson, C.E. 



HOW TO BECOME 

AN 

ENGINEER, 



THE THEORETICAL A^ D PRACTICAL TRAIMNG 
NECESSARY IN FITTING FOR THE 

DUTIES OF THE CIVIL ENGINEER. 

THE OPINIONS OF EMINENT AUTHORITIES, 
xVND 

THE COESES OF STBM IN THE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 



BY 

GEO. W. PLYMPTON, Am. 8oc. C.E. 




yyo w I 



NEW YORK : 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 

'^3 Murray and 27 Warren Street. 
1891. 



Copyright, 1891, 

BY 

D. Van Nostrand Company. 



\ 



^ 



PREFACE. 

In answering the question suggested 
by the title of this little book, the writer 
has felt throughout the embarrassment 
arising from the consciousness that in 
the minds of the great numbers who 
almost daily ask the question there isi 
almost as large a number of pursuits 
comprehended in the inquiry. The title 
engineer is assumed by men engaged in 
many varieties and many grades of 
human industry, from the ambitious 
plumber^s apprentice, or the engine- 
driver of a tug-boat, to him who plans and 
directs the construction of the most ex- 
tensive public works. The attempt has, 
however, been made to define the proper 
limits of the application of the term 
^^ engineering,^^ and to advise the young 
man who desires to become an engineer 
in the generally accepted sense of the 
term how to direct his efforts in such 
way as to make profitable use of his 
time. 

3 



HOW TO BECOME AN ENGINEER. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTIOK. 

Ekgi:n^eering is the science of em- 
ploying the physical properties of mat- 
ter to serve the purposes of mankind. 
It includes also the useful application 
of the different forms of Energy. Two 
branches of the science are recognized^ 
the distinction being based upon the 
ends to be served. If applied to advance 
the interests of mankind in a state of 
peace, it is called Civil Engineering ; if 
to serve the purposes of war, it is Military 
Engineering. 

Eankine says : ^^ The term Civil En- 
gineering is applied to a wide and some- 
what indefinite range of subjects, but 
it may be defined as embracing those 
applications of mechanics and of the arts 

5 



of construction generally which belong 
to lines of transport for goods and pas- 
sengers, whether roads, railroads, canals, 
or navigable waters ; to works for tlie 
conve3^ance of water, whether for drain- 
age or for water-supply ; to harbors and 
works for the protection of the coast. 
All these kinds of works are combina- 
tions of structures and machines ; they 
comprise structures in earthwork, as cut- 
tings, embankments, and reservoirs ; in 
masonr)^, timber, and iron, as bridges, via- 
ducts, aqueducts, locks,- basins, piers, and 
breakwaters ; they comprise machines, 
such as cars and locomotives, lock-gates, 
sluices and valves, pumping steam-en- 
gines, and dredging-machines. Their 
principles therefore consist, to a great 
extent, of the general principles of con- 
struction and machinery combined and 
adapted to suit the circumstances of 
each kind of work/^ 

" But Civil Engineering involves also 
the art of laying out lines of transport, 
and selecting the sites for works in the 
best manner possible with reference to 



the features of the country, so as to se- 
cure economy in execution and working/^ 

The water-supply and drainage of cit- 
ies must be contrived by an engineer, 
and the cost estimated in advance of the 
eonstruction. 

The relative merits of different sys- 
tems of conveying goods or passengers 
must be determined by the engineer. 

Now, because the prpfession of civil 
engineer involves such a variety of scien- 
tific labor, it happens that many engi- 
neers devote their time and energies to 
some of the various departments men- 
tioned above. Thus the Meclicmical En- 
gineer devotes his time to machines, to 
their construction, use, and efficiency ; 
also to the construction and operation of 
steam, gas, and air engines. 

The Mining Engineer is prepared to 
direct the various operations connected 
with the digging of coal or metallic ores 
from below the surface of the earth, and 
converting them at once to convenient 
forms for use, or transporting them to 
market. 



8 



The Electrical Engineer confines his 
work to a narrower field. He contrives 
the means by which electricity is gener- 
ated, and conducted to the places where 
it is to be applied in producing light, 
heat, or power. Too many in this branch 
of engineering are unfamiliar with the 
general principles which underlie all 
practice of civil engineering. Sir Will- 
iam Thomson, in a recent address to 
a body of electricians, reminded them 
that, to become electrical engineers, they 
should first make themselves engineers, 
and then become electricians. 

The Hydraulic Engineer estimates the 
water-power of streams and determines 
the proper location for mills and facto- 
ries. He designs systems of water-sup- 
ply and drainage for cities and towns, 
and estimates their cost. He also plans 
and directs the improvement of naviga- 
ble rivers and the construction of canals. 

The Sanitary Engineer is engaged 
chiefly with plans for draining and ven- 
!jilating buildings. 

The thoroughly educated civil engi- 



neer is he who has been well grounded 
in the principles which underlie the 
practice of the surveyor, the mechanical 
engineer, the mining engineer, the hy- 
draulic engineer, the electrical engineer, 
and the sanitary engineer, and has ac- 
quired some familiarity with the practi- 
cal work of each. 

Military Engineering, as before ex- 
plained, embraces the science and art 
of war. The student who designs to 
become a military engineer devotes 
his time to acquiring much the same 
branches of science as he who is to be- 
come a civil engineer, but it is always 
with reference to applying his science to 
the operations of war. His applied sci- 
ence embraces the construction of forti- 
fications, either temporary or permanent, 
the works of attack or defence of for- 
tresses, the construction and laying of 
military bridges; also the reconnaissances 
and surveys for military purposes, includ- 
ing the operations of armies in the field, 
and the construction of those transient 



10 



works by which troops are protected in 
line of battle. 

Military Engineering also embraces 
gunnery, military pyrotechny, transpor- 
tation of military stores, and the renewal 
of destroyed forts and bridges. 

In this book we propose to deal with 
the training of the civil engineer only. 

It is undeniable that many engineers 
have become eminent without the advan- 
tage of iiie systematic training which is 
generally considered necessary, and have 
risen to eminence from obscure positions 
where they had apparently become per- 
manently settled after having reached 
mature years. Watt and Stneaton were 
instrument-makers, Telford was a ma- 
son, and George Stephenson was an en- 
gine-driver. All these men were pos- 
sessed of a special aptitude for the work 
they accomplished, and they all, more- 
over, devoted much time to study after 
having passed the age which we now con- 
sider most favorable for the acquisition 
of book knowledge. They lived, more- 
over, at a time when the necessity for a 



11 



special training for engineers in the 
schools was not thought of. 

Professor Reynolds^ in a lecture on 
^^ Engineering as a Profession/^ said : 
^^ Those who, in spite of their early pau- 
city of education— and there have been 
many — have, notwithstanding, acquired 
a fair working knowledge of what we 
may call the theory of their subject, 
have done it by undergoing the greatest 
hardships. They have spent years of 
weary work in acquiring what would 
have been a comparatively short and 
pleasant task if systematically attempted 
with due means. I once heard an engi- 
nieer, now of great eminence, when speak- 
ing of the comparative facilities now af- 
forded, say : ' With a great sum obtained 
I this freedom ; but you, like St. Paul, 
are free-born.^ I doubt not that there 
are others who have given up as hopeless 
the attempt to understand comparatively 
simple matters, because it was wrapped 
in forms into the mysteries of which they 
had not previously been initiated. One 
of the reasons why preliminary education 



12 



was held of such little account has been 
the character of the only education to 
be obtained. These things, however, are 
now altered by the establishment of spe- 
cial schools and the extension of the old. 
All the more useful branches of science 
are now within the reach of the student 
of engineering, and in the forms most 
suitable for him. So that, as a step to- 
wards understanding the theory of ma- 
chines, it is not now necessary for him 
to begin with the theory of astronomy or 
the doctrine of chances. The miserable 
form in which tlie only mathematics to 
be obtained was wrapped has compelled 
engineers to work out methods for them- 
selves, and now that the demand for such 
knowledge has increased, we find that 
the first mathematicians in the land 
have, so to speak, patronized our system. 
And, as is natural, the extension of the 
practical use of mathematics infused new 
life into their study. Learned as it now • 
may be with a special view to the appli- 
cation of practical mechanics, a knowl- 
edge of mathematics and science is much 



13 



more useful than it was. But this is by 
no means all. This would not be mucli 
were it not that the accumulated expe- 
rience of engineering work has to a great 
extent been systematized and reduced to 
a form capable of mathematical treat- 
ment. 

'' The case is, however, entirely al- 
tered. Whereas formerly the good — at 
all events, the immediate good — to be 
reaped from the higher theoretical stud- 
ies for those designed for the calling of 
engineering was doubtful, now there is 
every inducement for it. Nor has this 
fact been lost sight of by engineers. To 
their credit it must be said that they 
have come forward liberally to provide 
their successors with that education of 
which they have avowedly experienced 
the want. There are now some fifteen 
colleges and universities in the country 
where not only can a knowledge of all 
the useful sciences be obtained, but where 
the application of science and mathe- 
matics to the work of the engineer is 
made a special branch of study. The 



u 



advisability of such a course of training 
is even now sometimes called in ques- 
tion. But I think this doubt can only 
apply, and is only meant to apply, to 
such a course of study as constituting 
the sole education of the student, as dis- 
])lacing the practical training. Looked 
at in this way, the doubt is just; for, as I 
have said, no amount of theoretical edu- 
cation can give that certainty and facil- 
ity which only come from practice. As 
an adjunct to the practical training — as a 
preparation for it — there cannot, I think, 
be the least doubt. The field of engi- 
neering has become so vast that it is im- 
possible for any one to acquire anything 
like a complete acquaintance with it by 
practical observation. The actual work 
of which one can gain experience in the 
course of a few years is but small, even 
under the most favorable circumstances. 
And the only way to make use of such 
experience as a general training is to 
supplement it by reading, and thus to 
use it for the purpose of illustrating the 



15 



application of general laws and princi- 
ples. 

" Even allowing the aid of books, the 
range of work which may fall to the lot 
of an engineer is far too large to be mas- 
tered by one mind, unless reduced to a 
system and to general laws. Thus all 
the multifarious forms of structures — 
buildings, bridges, wheels, roofs, etCo— 
which, if each one is to be treated as a 
whole, must be numbered by thousands ; 
if divided and considered in their com- 
ponent parts, are found to consist of 
seven or eight simple structures ; and 
the laws which regulate the use of these 
may be treated separately. Or, again, 
endless as are the varieties of machines, 
when divided into their elementary parts 
these are not found to number more than 
100. And so we might go on. 

'^ It is, then, clear what an immense 
advantage is to be gained by attacking 
this mass of knowledge in a systematic 
manner, such as that in which it comes 
before a student in his course tlirough a 
college. This is, in truth, the only man- 



16 



ner in which anything like a complete 
mastery can be obtained. To attempt it 
by private study is to work at a great dis- 
advantage. 

'' The exact course of preparation 
which is best for a student of engineer- 
ing to pursue, although it should be va- 
ried according to circumstances, seems 
to be somewhat as follows : Assuming, 
as in other professions, the age at which 
he is supposed to commence his career 
to be about twenty-one or twenty-two; 
having pursued a general course of educa- 
tion at school until he is sixteen or seven- 
teen, he should then commence his special 
course. In this he must learn some- 
thing of science and something of ait ; 
but he must also learn how the one can 
be brought to bear on the other. Mathe- 
matics and the natural sciences must 
form an essential part of his study, but 
he must not expect to make himself 
completely master of either. To do this 
would occupy more than the whole time 
at his disposal. He must select those 
branches of those subjects which most 



17 



directly relate to his future work, and 
leave the rest as he would leave a luxury. 
The making of this selection is very dif- 
ficult ; the temptation is always to at- 
tempt too much, and this ends only in 
confusion. It is but a comparatively 
small portion of these wide subjects that 
can be usefully brought to bear on engi- 
neering, and to these he must necessarily 
restrict himself. The methods of apply- 
ing these sciences to engineering prob- 
lems constitute a large subject, and one 
that it is necessary for him to study; and 
besides this, he will have to devote some 
of his time to acquiring sufficient knowl- 
edge of tlie things to be done by engi- 
neers, on which to study the application 
of his science. And then there are yet 
those manual operations which are essen- 
tial to bring his knowledge to a practi- 
cal issue, and in which a long course of 
training is necessary to acquire the re- 
quisite skill, such as mechanical drawing 
and the use of measuring and surveying 
instruments, the want of facility in the 
use of wluch would prevent for a long 



18 



tiwie tlie student from making practical 
use of his knowledge. 

"' To acquire a useful knowledge in 
these various branches of study will re- 
quire three^ or at least; two years. The 
student will then proceed with his prac- 
tical training, which should include as 
great a range of work as possible. In 
this he will find the knowledge he has 
acquired of very great help ; he will rec- 
ognize much that he sees, and be able to 
judge of the most important things to 
which to direct his attention. After such 
preparation he will learn more in one 
year spent in the workshop or on the 
works than in three without it, so that 
by the time he has completed his train- 
ing he will have as much practical 
knowledge as if he had spent his whole 
time in the workshops. 

'' Of course it would be little short of 
affectation to pretend that, surrounded 
as we are with mechanical results, one 
cannot learn to produce the results with 
which he is familiar, unless he is first 
able to deduce them from elementary 



19 



principles. This would be equivalent to 
asserting that an English child could not 
speak English until he had mastered the 
rules of grammar. But to teach a lan- 
guage without the aid of grammar is 
not only a waste of labor, but a sure 
means of producing an imperfect result, 
and this is equivalent to teaching engi- 
neering without science. Such is the 
hold which the study of natural science 
has taken on all classes, and such are the 
facilities for those in the lower ranks to 
rise, that it seems to be quite certain that 
if those who have the best opportunity of 
qualifying themselves as engineers neg- 
lect to do so in the highest manner, they 
will find their places filled by those who, 
while rising from below, have made bet- 
ter use of their opportunities/^ 



20 



CHAPTER 11. 

SYSTEMATIC COURSE OF STUDY IN THE 

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES OF THE 

UNITED STATES. 

The course of study required to ob- 
tain the degree of Civil Engineer differs 
in the higher technical schools chiefly in 
the amount of study required, not in the 
character of the branches pursued. 

The Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 
at Troy, N. Y., is doubtless the leading 
engineering school of this country. Its 
course of study is given below. The tab- 
ulated statement is prefaced in the cata- 
logue with the following summary of the 
specialties of engineering work: 

'' It should be stated, perhaps, that 
Civil Engineering is understood to in- 
clude Mechanical or Dynamical Engineer- 
ing, Road Engineering, Bridge Engineer- 
ing, Hydraulic Engineering, Steam Engi- 
neering, Electrical Engineering, Mining 
Engineering, and Sanitary Engineering. 
By reference to the programme of the 



21 



course of study, it will be seen that the 
wants of students of Mechanical and 
Electrical Engineering have been con- 
sidered and well provided for, and that, 
with the supplemental course in Assay- 
ing, recently introduced, together with 
proposed special extensions of certain 
portions of the course, the wants of the 
future mining engineer will also be rea- 
sonably well supplied. 

" The studies of the course are de- 
signed to secure to all the graduates a 
professional preparation, at once thor- 
ough and practical, for the following 
specialties of engineering practice: 

^^The location, construction, and super- 
intendence of public works, as railways, 
canals, water-works, etc. ; the design, con- 
struction, and management of mills, iron 
works, steel works, chemical works, and 
pneumatic works; the design and con- 
struction of roofs, arch-bridges, girder- 
bridges, and suspension bridges ; the sur- 
vey and superintendence of mines ; the 
design, construction, and use of wind-mo- 
tors, hydraulic motors, air-engines, and 



22 



the various kinds of steam-engines ; the 
design, construction, and use of machines 
in general, and the determination of their 
efficiency; the survey of rivers, lakes, and 
liarbors, and the direction of their im- 
provements ; the determination of lati- 
tude, longitude, time, and the meridian 
in geographical explorations, or for other 
purposes, together with the projection of 
maps ; the selection and test of materials 
used in construction, and the construc- 
tion of the various kinds of geometrical 
and topographical drawings/^ 

To enter the lowest class of the Insti- 
tute the student must pass an examina- 
tion fn the following : Geography; En- 
glish grammar, including spelling; Arith- 
metic, as treated in the higher text-books ; 
Algebra, through equations of the second 
degree; Plane geometry, first five books 
of Wentworth^s geometry, or its equiva- 
lent. 

The full course is as follows : 



23 

COURSE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING. 

four years. 
Division D.— First Year. 

Mathematics. — Wells' University algebra J 
Went worth's text-book of geometry; Wood's 
trigonometry, analytical, plane, and spherical. 

Descriptive Geometry. — Warren's element- 
ary plane -prohlems— plates ; Warren's ele- 
mentary projections — theory and plates. 

Stereotomy. — Warren's drafting instruments 
and o\)eTSiiions—theo7y and plates. 

Physics. — Atkinson's Ganot's elementary phys- 
ics through acoustics. 

French Language. — Fasquelle's French gram- 
mar. 

English Language.— Hart's English composi- 
tion and rhetoric. 

Geodesy. — Gillespie's chain and compass sur- 
veying — theory and practice ; farm surveying 
— practice. 

Topographical Drawing.— Elementary draw- 
ing; topographical plans. 

Free-hand Drawing. — Elementary practice. 

Division C— Second Year. 

Mathematics.— Higher algebra ; analytic ge- 
ometry. 

Descriptive Geometry. — General ortho- 
graphic projections — theoj^y and plates. 



24 



Stbreotomy. — Bridge drawing; shades and 
shadows — theory and plates ; linear perspec- 
tive — theory and plates. 

Chemistry. — Inorganic chemistry. 

Physics. — Heat; optics. 

Natural Hibtory. — Botany. 

French Language.— Syntax of grammar, 
with exercises and writing from dictation ; 
translation of scientific works ; epistolary cor- 
respondence and conversation. 

English Language.— Composition ; elements 
of criticism. 

Geodesy. — Plane table suvYeyin g— theory and 
practice; adjustment and use of field instru- 
ments — theory and practice; trigonometrical 
and topographical surveying — theory; trigo- 
nometrical suryeying and \eiel\ing— practice; 
mine surveying — theory. 

Topographical Drawing. — Map of farm sur- 
vey ; colored topography — plates. 

Free-hand Drawing. — Sketches of tools, of 
the components of machines, of bridges, and 
other structures. 

Division B.— Third Year. 

Mathematics. — Differential calculus ; integral 

calculus. 
Astronomy. — Descriptive astronomy. 
Rational Mechanics. — Mechanics of solids ; 

mechanics of fluids ; mechanical problems. 



25 



Stereotomy. — Machine construction and draw- 
ing — theory and plates. 

Physics. — Electricity and magnetism — theory 
and practice. 

Natural History. — Mineralogy and petrog- 
raphy ; descriptive geology ; technical ge- 
ology. 

Chemistry. — Qualitative analysis; blow-pipe 
analysis ; determinative mineralogy ; practi- 
cal chemistry. 

Geodesy. — Hydrographical, topographical, and 
town surveying — practice. 

Topographical Drawing. — Contour map ; 
map of hydrographical survey. 

Division A.— Fourth Year. 

Astronomy. — Spherical and practical astron- 
omy. 

Physics. — Thermodynamics: electrod}^ amies. 

Physical Mechanics.— Mechanics of solids— 
friction, — strength of materials; mechanics of 
^xAdiS— practical hydraulics, — practical pneu- 
matics. 

Machines. — General theory of machines; 
description of machines; theory of prime 
movers — steam-engines, — air-engines, — electro- 
magnetic engines, — hydraulic motors, — wind 
motors; construction and location of ma- 
chines; designs for, and reviews of special 
machines; measurement and estimnto <)f 



26 



power; weir, and other measurements of the 
flow of water. 

Constructions. — Equilibrium and stability of 
structures — remiemeni walls, — reservoirs, — 
roofs, — arches, — girder bridges, — suspension 
bridges; designs for, and reviews of special 
structures. 

Stereotomy. — Stone cutting — iTieary and 
plates. 

Geodesy. — Higher geodesy ; projection of 
maps — theory; line surveying — road surveys, 
— staking out for constructions. 

Road Engineering.— Common roads; rail- 
roads; canals; tunnels. 

The Steam-engine. — Lectures; indicating and 
estimating the power of steam-engines; dut}*- 
tests of water-works pumping machinery; 
compound and multiple-expansion engines. 

Metallurgy.— General metallurgy; iron me- 
tallurgy. 

Topographical Drawing.— Plans, profiles, 
and sections of railroad survey's. 

Law. — Law of contracts. 

This is the most complete engineering 
course afforded in the United States. 

The course in the Pardee Scientii5c De- 
partment of Lafayette College, at Easton. 
Pa., is as follows: 



27 



CIVIL ENGINEERING COURSE. 

Freshman Year. 

First Term, — Algebra (completed), Elements of 
Industrial Drawing, English, March's Method, 
French, Chemistry, Lectures on Health. 

Second Term. — Geometry (completed). Survey- 
ing, Plane Problems, French, German, Prob- 
lems in Division of Land. 

2Viird Term. — Surveying, Field Work, Ele- 
mentary Projections, Trigonometry and Men- 
suration, French, German, Analytical Chem- 
istry. 

Throughout the year: Declamations, Themes, 
and the Bible. 

Sophomore Year. 

First Term. — Analytical Geometry (begun)» 
Surveying, Field Work, Elementary Projec^ 
tions, Mineralogy, French, German, Study 
of Words, Trench. 

Second Term. — Analytical Geometry (com* 
pleted), Topographical Drawing, Botany, 
Zoology, French, German, Mineralogy. 

Third Term. — Differential and Integral Calcu- 
lus, Descriptive Geometry, Botany, Zoolrgy, 
French, German, Determinative Mineralogy. 

Throughout the year: Declamations, Themes, 
and the Bible. 

Junior Year. 

First J<3rm.— Descriptive Geometry (General 
Grl'hographic Projections), Triangular Sur- 



28 



veying) Field Work, Adjustment of Instru 
ments, French, Mechanics, Lithology, Prac- 
tice with the Blow-pipe. 

Second Term. — Physics (begun). Calculus (con- 
tinued). Shades and Shadows, Road Enginuer- 
ing — Theory (begun), Colored Topography, 
Hydrographical Surveying. 

Third Term. — Linear Perspective, Physics (com- 
pleted). Analytical and Applied ivfechanics. 
Topographical Surveying, Map of Topo- 
graphical Survey, Road Engineering— The- 
ory (completed). 

Throughout the year : Declamations, Themes, 
written Debates, and the Bible. 

Senior Year. 

First Term. — Water Supply, Road Engineering 
— Practice, Plans, Profiles, and Sections of 
Road Surveys, Astronomy, Machine Draw- 
ing, General Theory of I^IachiDCs, Anatomy 
and Physiology. 

Second jngrm.— Stone Cutting, Machinery and 
Motors, Strength of Materials, Stability of 
Structures, Supply and Distribution of Water, 
Astronomy, Geology, Mineralogy, Political 
Economy. 

TJiird Term, — Bridge Drawing, Foundations, 
Retaining Walls, River and Canal Improve- 
ments, Designs for and Reviews of Engineer- 
ing Works, Bridge and Roof Construction, 



29 . 

Graphical Statics, History, Geology, Gradua- 
tion Theses. 
Throughout the year : Themes, Speaking, and 
Biblical Studies. 

Graduates from this course also receive 
the degree of Civil Engineer. * 

A course in Mining Engineering is 
also provided, differing from the above 
in the practical work during the Junior 
and Senior years. 

In the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology the course of Civil Engineering is 
specified as follows : 

First Year. 

First Term. — Algebra, General Chemistry, 
Chemical Laboratory, Rhetoric, English 
Composition, French, Mechanical and Free- 
hand Drawing, Military Drill, 

Second Term. — Solid Geometry, Plane Trigo- 
nometry, General Chemistry, Chemical Lab- 
oratory, Modern History, ^English Literature, 
French, Mechanical Drawing, Military Drill. 

Second Year. 
First Term. — Surveying: Compass and Transit, 
Plotting from Notes, Analytic Geometry, Ad- 
vanced Geometrical Drawing, Physics, Mod- 
ern History, German, Spherical Trigonometry. 



30 



kcond Term. — Levelling. Profiles, Eleuients of 
Topography, Differential Calculus, Physics, 
Physical Geography, Modern History, Ger- 
man. 

Third Year. 

First Term^—Ho'dd Engineering, Advanced 
Field Work, Topographical Drawing, Inte- 
gral Calculus, General Statics, Physics: Lec- 
tures and Laboratory, Structural Geology, 
Constitutional History, German. 

Second Term. — Railroad Engineering, Topog- 
raphy and Map Work, Kinematics and Dy- 
namics, Strength of Materials, Physics: Lab- 
oratory Work, Historical Geology, Political 
Economy, German. 

Fourth Year. 

First Term, — Bridges and Roofs, Railroad Man- 
agement, Hydraulic Engineering, Sanitary 
Engineering, Strength of Materials, Topog- 
raphy and Geodesy. 

Second Term. — Bridges and Roofs, Hydraulic 
Engineering, Sanitary Engineering, Specifi- 
cations and Contracts, Applied Mechanics, 
Thesis Work. 



The following is the outline of the 
course of Civil Engineering at the School 
of Mines, Columbia College : 



31 



First Year. 

Trigonometry and Mensuration, Physics, Bot- 
any, Geometrical Conic Sections, Analytical 
Geometry, Descriptive Geometry, Chemistry, 
and an extensive course in Surveying. 

Second Year. 

Analytical Geometry, Differential Calculus, 
Graphics, Stereotomy, Study of Roads and 
Pavements, Sanitary Engineering, Practical 
Mining, Zoology, Applied Chemistry, Blow- 
pipe Analysis, Integral Calculus and Miner- 
alogy, Surveying during summer vacation. 

Third Year. 

Mechanics of Solids, Physics, Practical Astron- 
omy, Geodesy, Properties and Use of the 
Materials of Engineering, Metallurgy, Geol- 
ogy, Strength of Materials, Drawing, Prac- 
tical Geodesy. 

Fourth Year. 

Water Supply Engineering, Sewerage, River 
and Harbor Improvement, Hydraulic En- 
gineering, Machinery and Millwork, Graphic 
Statics, Railway Engineering, Railway Sur- 
veying and Practical Geodesy, Engineering 
Designs and Drawing. 

Other institutions in this country af- 



32 



fording similar courses o'f study are Cor- 
nell University, Princeton College, Rut- 
gers College, Lehigh University, Ste- 
vens Institute, Polytechnic Institute of 
Brooklyn, and Michigan University. A 
course in the night-school of Cooper 
Union affords the same mathematical 
training as in most of the above courses, 
together with physics, chemistry, geology^ 
and astronomy, but without the practical 
field-work. It has proved sufficient in 
several notable instances to serve as a 
groundwork to a successful course in en- 
gineering. 



83 



CHAPTER IIL 

ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN FOREIGN 
COUNTRIES. 

The f oliowing abstracts are taken from 
a report to the council of the Institution 
of Civil Engineers. The report was com- 
pleted from documents obtained from 
the various countries mentioned. 

THE STATUS AND EDUCATION OF ENGI- 
NEERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOJ^L 

In England the profession of engineer- 
ing is entirely unconnected with the gov- 
ernment^ there being no state corps of 
engineers other than those attached to 
the acrmy. It is open to any one to enter 
the profession, and to obtain in it any 
standing his merits may entitle him to j 
and all the civil works of the country, 
whether public or private, are (with some 



u 



few exceptions, where Royal Eng^ineers 
have been employed) executed by private 
practitioners. 

There is, further, in England no pub- 
lic provision for engineering education. 
Every candidate for the profession must 
get his technical, like his general educa- 
tion, as best he can ; and this necessity 
has led to conditions of education pecu- 
liarly and essentially practical, such be- 
ing the most direct and expeditious mode 
of getting into the way of practical em- 
ployment. 

The education of an engineer is, in 
fact, effected by u, process analogous to 
that followed generally in trades, name- 
ly> by a simple course of apprenticeship, 
usually with a premium, to a practising 
engineer ; during which the pupil is sup- 
posed, by taking part in the ordinary 
business routine, to become gradually fa- 
miliar with the practical duties of the 
profession, so as at last to acquire com- 
petency to perform them alone, or, at 
least, after some further practical expe- 
rience in a subordinate capacity. 



35 



It is not the custom in England to con* 
sider theoretical knowledge as absolutely 
essential. It is true that most consider- 
ate masters recommend that such knowl- 
edge should Vje acquired, and prefer such 
pupils as have in some degree attained it, 
and it is also true that intelligent and 
earnest-minded pupils often spontane- 
ously devote themselves, both before and 
during their pupilage, to theoretical stud- 
ies; but these cases, though happily much 
more frequent now than formerly, really 
amount only to voluntary departures 
from the general rule. 

The theoretical knowledge which may, 
in these cases, be desired, is obtained 
either by private reading or by attend- 
ance at the scientific classes established 
at various educational institutions, some 
of which have made special provision 
for studies of this kind, as may be seen 
in the particulars given farther on. 

The idractical education in England is 
perhaps the most perfect possible, if the 
opportunities obtained during the pupil- 
a2:e are ample, and the pupil properly- 



u 



avails htmself of them ; for nothing can 
give a student so thorough and useful a 
knowledge of practical works as being ac- 
tually engaged for a length of time upon 
them in a really working capacity ; in 
addition to which, the habits of business 
and the familiarity with all subsidiary 
arrangements, acquired in this way, have 
a beneficial influence on the student's fu- 
ture career. This thorough proficiency 
in practical matters tends largely to com- 
pensate for — in many cases to outweigh 
— the deficiency in theoretical attain- 
ments, and it is undoubtedly this, in- 
fluenced in some degree by the natural 
self-reliance and practical common sense 
inherent in the English character, which 
has given such a high standing to tho 
profession in this country. 

THE STATUS AND EDUCATION OF ENGt 
NEERS IK OTHER EUROPEAN COUN- 
TRIES. 

In most parts of the Continent the sta- 
tus of civil engineers differs materially 
from that obtaining in England. In al- 



37 



most every country of Europe there ex- 
ists a state corps of engineers, educated 
and supported by the government, whose 
business it is to construct and superin- 
tend the public works of the nation. 
Private practitioners are therefore ex- 
cluded from these works, and have to 
"find employment, as best they can, in 
private industrial enterprises. 

France affords the most perfect ex- 
ample of this system. The Government 
Corps of Engineers exists under two di- 
visions, viz., the Ingenieurs des Mines 
and the Ingenietii^s des Fonts et ChattS' 
sees. The former have the highest mnk, 
and are employed chiefly, but not exclu- 
sively, on mining operations, and works 
allied thereto ; the latter take the more 
general public constructive works, as 
their name implies. 

There are several classes in each di- 
vision, inspectors general, engineers in 
chief, and ordinary engineers, and pro- 
motion is partly by merit and partly by 
seniority. The total number at present 
is given at 783. They hold a good posi- 



38 



tion in the country, have generally con- 
siderable ability, and include in their 
ranks some men of great eminence in 
mechanical science. 

Members of either corps are allowed, 
on special application, to undertake pri- 
vate work on the railways of the country 
(all other private work being forbidden), 
and receive a sort of furlough for the 
purpose. But if their absence from their 
official duties exceeds five years they for- 
feit their position, and lose all rights ap- 
pertaining thereto. 

The cases, however, of government en- 
gineers taking charge of private works 
are not numerous, as there exists in 
France a large body of civil engineers 
independent of the government, and hav- 
ing no official status, who devote them- 
selves to the requirements of private in- 
dividual enterprises. These have to make 
their own way in the profession, and 
occupy, in fact, the same kind of .posi- 
tion as engineers in England, except that 
they have a sort of official guarantee m 



39 



to tlieir education, as will be hereafter 
explained. 

The education of foreign engineers is 
strongly contrasted with that in England 
in every particular. Practical training 
by apprenticeship is unknown ; the edu- 
i)ation begins at the other end, namely, 
by the compulsory acquirement of a high 
degree of theoretical knowledge, under 
the direction, and generally at the ex- 
pense, of the government of the country. 
Partly with this, and partly afterwards, 
there is communicated a certain amount 
of information on practical matters ; but 
this is imparted in a way diilering much 
from the English plan, and probably 
with less efficient results. 

Thus, while the English engineer is 
launched in his profession with the qual- 
ification of a considerable practical ex- 
perience, but with perhaps little or no 
theoretical knowledge, the foreign one 
begins with a thorough foundation of 
principles, but with a limited course of 
practice ; a deficiency, however, which 
tends to correct itself with time. 



40 



The education of both the government 
aiid the private engineers is on the same 
system, though carried on in diiferent es- 
tablishments. 

The government engineers must have 
been at first pupils at a large general sci- 
entific educational establishment called 
the Ecole Polytechnique. Admission to 
this is by public competition, and the 
standard is very high — so high, in fact, 
as to exclude all but persons already well 
advanced. The education in this school 
is exclusively scientific and theoretical, 
and from it students are taken to supply 
not only the corps of Government Civil 
Engineers, but also all the scientific de- 
partments of the army and navy. 

After a two years^ course in the Ecole 
Polytechnique, such joung men as are 
candidates for government employment 
as engineers are drafted off, also by strict 
examinations, into two special schools 
for the two departments respectively, 
namely, the Ecole des Mines and the 
Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees, in each of 
which the studies last three years. 



41 



During the five years thus spent, the 
theoretical education given to the engi- 
neer is very complete, every branch of 
science bearing on his profession being 
taught him, and his proficiency being 
tested by the strictest examination at the 
end of the term. On passing the final 
examination, the pupil enters the corps 
he is destined for, and begins at once his 
official duty in the lowest grade. 

The practical education of the pupil, 
though not so complete or so effective as 
in England, is by no means neglected. 
During the three years' study in the spe- 
cial schools, much instruction is commu- 
nicated having a practical bearing; lec- 
tures, descriptions, and exercises being 
given very fully on practical matters, 
with the object of making the pupil fa- 
miliar with the general nature of the 
works he will hereafter have to do with, 
and so preparing him for his future ex- 
perience on them. To aid this, the pu- 
pils are sent, for a considerable portion 
of the three years, on " missions '' to va- 
rious public works in practical executian 



42 



under the department tliey are to be at- 
tached to ; but whether during these 
missions they actually take part in the 
works going on, or merely make observer 
lions, and write accounts of what they 
tave seen, is not clear. 

At any rate, at the end of the terut 
(being then twenty-three or twenty-foui 
years of age) they are assumed to be ca- 
pable of doing useful practical work in 
the lower grade, or third class, and are 
at once given employment, with pay, as 
supernumeraries, draughtsmen, or sub- 
engineers, on some important engineer- 
ing work in progress, where they gain 
the further practical experience neces- 
sary to fit them for taking more inde* 
pendent positions. 

The education, both iu the Ecole Poly- 
technique and the subsequent special 
school, is mainly at the cost of the gov- 
ernment, the pupil only paying small 
fees. This fact, and the provision for life 
which the employment affords, produce 
a very keen competition for the privi- 



43 



leges, which keeps up a high standard of 
qualification. 

The education of civil engineers prac- 
tising privately is given in an establish- 
ment called the Ecole Centrale des Arts 
et Manufactures. This was originally 
founded as a private establishment ; but 
it was afterwards taken to by the state, 
and is now entirely under government 
direction. The instruction, however, is 
not professedly gratuitous, as the pupils 
pay moderate fees. 

Admission to this school is open to all 
who can pass a strict entrance examina- 
tion ; but the applications always much 
exceed the numbers that can be received 
(about 200 annually), and selection is 
made of the best. 

The course of studies lasts three years, 
and is generally of the same nature as 
that given to the government engineers, 
with the exception that mathematical at- 
tainments are not pushed quite so high. 
In the first year the instruction is the- 
oretical only; in the second and third 
years theoretical and practical instruc- 



44 



tion are combined. Thus the school aims 
at representing a combination, on a less 
extended scale, of the Polytechnic and 
special schools of the government corps. 
It is, moreover, more general and prac- 
tical in its nature, so as to prepare the 
pupil as much as possible for any of the 
varieties of engineering work that may 
fall in his way, or, indeed, for other occu- 
pations of a scientific nature. 

After this course is passed through, a 
diploma of ^^Ingenieur des Arts et Man- 
ufactures^^ is given to those students who 
have passed the highest public examina- 
tion, and a lower certificate of capacity 
to those who have simply satisfied the 
important points. These documents give 
no claim to any employment, but are 
considered such good guarantees of abil- 
ity, that their holders seldom fail to pro- 
cure paid employment soon after leaving 
the school. They begin, like the govern- 
ment engineers, in subordinate situations, 
and gain experience and position as they 
go on. 

There is nothing to prevent arvff engi- 



45 



neer from practising in France who has 
not been through any of the acknowl- 
edged schools, and self-made men of su- 
perior practical ability have often suc- 
ceeded well ; but these cases form the 
exceptions to the general rule. 

In Prussia, a corps called Master Con- 
structors {Baumeister) are employed by 
the state, and are educated as follows : 

Each officer must first have received 
a complete general scientific training in 
one of the ordinary schools or gymnasia 
of the country. 

He must then be practically engaged 
for one year with one of the constructive 
officers of the state. 

He is then admitted into a special gov- 
ernment educational establishment in 
Berlin, called the Eoyal School of Con- 
struction (Konigliche Bau Akademie), 
where he remains two years, the stud- 
ies comprising all branches of scientific 
knowledge appertaining to engineering 
and architecture, particular care being 
bestowed on construction and drawing. 
He then passes the first state examina- 



46 



tion^ and enters upon practical paid em- 
ployment in a subordinate capacity. 

After three years of this, he devotes 
two more years to study, and then passes 
a second state examination, when he is 
considered fully qualified for a govern- 
ment appointment in the higher grade, 
which he will receive as vacancies occur. 

Thus the complete education of the 
government official engiueer occupies in 
all eight years from the time of liis leav- 
ing the preliminary school, of which four 
years are devoted to actual practice — a 
feature that appears to be general in 
Germany, and that remarkably distin- 
^uislies the German curriculum from the 
French one, and brings it more into anal- 
ogy with the English ; with, however, the 
very important addition of the theoreti- 
cal acquirements. It has, in fact, the ad- 
vantages of the English and the French 
systems combined. 

It is peculiar to the Prussian govern- 
ment system that the student must fully 
qualify both in engineering and architect- 
ure. 



47 



There is also in Berlin a governmonfe 
school for private practitioners, called 
the Eoyal Industrial Academy (Konig- 
liche Gewerbe Akademie), analogous to 
the Ecole Centrale of Paris. This has 
also the feature of requiring the educa- 
tion to be commenced by passing some 
time in practical employment. The 
course in the school occupies three years, 
and the certificate given is generally a 
sufficient recommendation to remunera- 
tive employment. 

In the Duchy of Baden the arrange- 
ments for engineering education in tho 
Polytechnic Institution at Carlsruhe aro 
noted for their perfection, and in conse- 
quence the school is much frequented by 
foreigners. Copious information will be* 
found as to this school ; and, in order ta 
convey a more complete idea of the na- 
ture of the education, there is added a 
complete list of the questions given 
for the examination for the Diploma in 
Civil Engineering in 1867-8. The de- 
gree of proficiency, both in theory and 
practice, required for the proper solution 



48 



of these questions must be very remark- 
able. 

The system in Austria seems pretty 
nearly the same as in Prussia, except that 
there would appear to be only one educa- 
tional establishment, the Polytechnic In- 
stitute, for all classes of engineers, and 
that any students are eligible for gov- 
ernment employment, on passing the re- 
quired examinations. After examination 
diplomas are granted, guaranteeing the 
theoretical and practical proficiencj'' of 
the student ; and licenses to practise in 
engineering, architecture, and surveying 
must be obtained from the government, 
according to prescribed rules. This re- 
striction on private practice appears pe- 
culiar to Austria and some neighboring 
states. In Prussia, and in most other 
German countries, as in France and 
England, the right to practise is free. 

The system in Kussia appears pretty 
nearly the same as in France. 

In Switzerland, the Polytechnic School 
of Zurich and the Special School of Lau- 



49 



Baiine bear a high character for engineer- 
ing education. 

In Italy there are also good educational 
arrangements. 

J^. Spain there is a corps of government 
engineers somewhat analogous to those 
of France, and their education is prop- 
erly provided for. 

THE COURSES OF STUDY IN" SOME OF THK 
LEADING EDUCATIONAL INSTITU- 
TIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRE- 
LAND WHERE INSTRUCTION IS GIVEN" 
BEARING ON" THE PROFESSION- OF 
ENGINEERING. 

KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON. 

This is one of the most frequented in- 
stitutions for the preparatory training of 
young men about to enter the profession 
of Civil Engineering in England. 

It comprises several departments of 
education, but the one which has more- 
particularly to do with this subject is 
the '^ Department of Applifnl Sciences/* 



50 



^^hicli is thus defined by the aufliorities 
of the college : 

'* The object in view iu this department is to 
provide a system of general education, practical 
in its nature, for a large class of young men 
who in after life are likely to be engaged in 
commercial and agricultural pursuits, or in pro- 
fessional employments, such as Civil and Mili- 
tary Engineering, Surveying, Architecture, and 
the higher branches of manufacturing art/' 

It is also intended to prepare students for 
scientific examinations, such as those of the 
University of London, the Department of Pub- 
lic Works, India, Whitworth Scholarships, etc. 

The whole course occupies three years, and 
forms an appropriate introduction to that kind 
of instruction which can only be obtained within 
the walls of the manufactory, or by actually 
taking part in the labors of the surveyor, the 
engineer, or the architect. 

Tlie following subjects are taught in 
this department : 

1. Mathematics, 

2. Natural Philosophy in its various 
branches, including Practical and Ex- 
perimental Physics. 

These are taught by lectures and 
illustrations in the usual way. 



51 



3. The Ai'ts of Construction in con- 
nection with Civil Engineering and Ar- 
chitecture. 

This consists of lectures on mate- 
rials, foundations, the principles and 
practice of the design and construc- 
tion of railways, bridges, houses, sew- 
erage, tunnels, canals, docks, harbors, 
lighthouses, etc.; and the more ad- 
vanced students are exercised upon 
essays on various engineering ques- 
tions, and on constructive designs 
for works. 

4, Manufacturing Art and Machinery, 

This comprises lectures on the 
manufacture of iron and steel, and 
other metals, and on machinery and 
manufacturing processes of various 
kinds ; the lectures " being intended 
to add a knowledge of practice to a 
knowledge of theory taught by the 
other professors.^^ 

The students have the opportunity 
of visiting works in the vicinity of 
London; and, at an advanced stage. 



52 



are exercised on essays and designs 
as in the last-mentioned subject. 

The instruction in this branch is aided 
by the establishment of an Engineering 
Workshop, in which the students are al- 
lowed to work, and where they have the 
opportunity of learning some of the sirn- 
plest processes of practical working in 
wood and metals. 

5. Land Surveying and Levelling. 

These are taught theoretically by 
College lectures, and practically by 
exercise in the field. 

6. Drawing. 

This comprises not only free draw- 
ing, but geometrical projection, and 
practical drawing of tlie kind used 
by architects and civil and mechani- 
cal engineers. 

It is taught by actual practice in 
the ordinary way. 

7. Chemistry. 

Taught by lectures and laboratory 
practice. 



53 



8. Geology and Mineralogy. 

Taught by lectures and by occa* 
sional field excursions. 

9. Photography, 

Lectures and demonstrations. 

Examinations are held, and prizes and 
certificates are given ; and a few of the 
students exhibiting most proficiency are 
elected ^^ Associates/' who are entitled to 
perpetual free admission, and to special 
honor in the College. 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. 

This establishment is also designed to 
afford preparatory training to students of 
Engineering. It contains a Deimrtment 
of Civil and Mechanical Engineeringy of 
which a special prospectus is issued an- 
nually. 

The following extract from the pro- 
spectus will explain the general objects 
aimed at: 

The course of iustruction in this department 
is not intended to supersede the necessity of the 



54 



Engineeriug student serviug a pupilage on the 
works of a Civil and Mechanical Engineer, as 
it is only upon them that he can obtain a 
thorough knowledge of the practical details of 
construction; but it is designed to teach him 
the theoretical principles of his profession, to- 
gether with those habits of thought and obser- 
vation without which he will not be able to take 
full advantage of the practice that will come 
before him during his term of pupilage. 

The complete course extends over three seS' 
sions, and embraces the following subjects: 

Mathematics, pure and applied. 

Applied mechanics. 

Physics. 

Physical laboratory. 

Chemistry. 

Chemical laboratory. 

Civil and mechanical engineering. 

Mechanical drawing and designing. 

Surveying and levelling. 

Geology. 

Students who have gone through the com- 
plete course, and who have passed the examina- 
tion at the end of each of the three sessions, to 
the satisfaction of the professors, will be en- 
titled to the General Certificate of Engineering. 

There is also a Professorship of Archi- 
tecture and Construction, in which these 



55 

subjects are comprehensively treated in 
two courses, \\z. : 

Architecture as a Fine Art. 
Architecture as a Science, 

EOYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, LONDON 

The object of this School is set forta 
in the following extract from the pro- 
spectus: 

*' The principal object of the Institution is to 
discipline the students thoroughly in the prin- 
oiples of those sciences upon which the opera- 
tions of the miner and metallurgist depend. Of 
course, nothing but experience in the mine and 
in the laboratory can confer the skill and tact 
requisite for the practical conduct of those 
operations; but, on the other hand, it is only 
by an acquaintance with scientific principles 
that the beginner can profit by that experience, 
and improve upon the processes of his predeces- 
sors. " 

The course of study occupies three 
years, tod comprises the following sub- 
jects : 

Physics and Applied Mechanics. 
Chemistry (Inorganic). 



56 



Laboratory Practice. 

Mechanical Drawing. 

Geology. 

Palaeontology. 

Mineralogy. 

Metallurgy and Assaying. 

Mining. 

The mode of instruction is by system- 
atic courses of lectures, by written and 
oral examinations, by practical teaching 
in the laboratories and drawing office, 
and also, under certain conditions, by 
field excursions. 

Scholars who have gone through the 
proper course, and pass the requisite ex- 
aminations, are entitled to receive an of- 
ficial certificate, conferring on them the 
title of " Associate of the Royal Scliool of 
Mines. '^ 

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. 

The arrangements for engineering in- 
struction at this establishment are thus de- 
scribed by the able Professor of Civil En- 
gineering, Mr. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.; 



57 



^^ The instruction provided for engi- 
neers at the University of Edinburgh is 
now, I think, fairly well organized. It 
consists of afc least a two-years^ course of 
study, arranged as follows ; 

First Year, 

Mathematics. 
Natural Philosophy. 
Engineering. 
Mechanical Drawing. 

Second Year. 

Summer Session. — Surveying, levelling, 

and setting out. 
Winter Session. — Mathematics. 

Chemistry. 

Engineering. 

Mechanical Drawing. 

These two years of study are followed 
each by a general University examina- 
tion, leading to a degree of Bachelor, or 
Licentiate of Engineering. This degree 
has not yet been conferred, owing to cer- 



58 



tain legal diflBculties, whicli are in pro- 
cess of removal. 

The course called Engineering consists 
of about 100 lectures in each session, and 
treats of the following subjects: 

Year A. 

1. Principles of statics ; couples ; par- 
allel and inclined forces ; centre of grav- 
ity; moments of inertia. 

2. Equilibrium and stability of frames, 
bracing-cords, ribs and linear arches. 

3. Strength of materials. 

4. Strength of the simpler forms in 
which materials are used. 

5. Application of mechanical princi- 
ples to combined structures, especially 
roofs and bridges. 

6. The construction of roads, railways 
and tramways. 

7. Principles of dynamics ; Newton^s 
laws of motion ; conservation and trans- 
formation of energy. 

8. Application of the principles of dy- 
namics to prime movers, especially to lo- 
comotives. 



59 



9. Applications of machinery to man- 
ufactures. 

Year B. 

1. Application of statics to the deter* 
mination of frictional stability and to hy- 
drostatics. 

2. Hydrodynamics. 

3. The construction of waterworks. 

4. Drainage of towns. 

5. Construction of harbors. 

6. Application of kinematics to ma- 
chinery, illustrated by millwright work. 

7. The construction of the condensing 
steam-engine. 

8. The construction of water-wheels, 
turbines, and primary machinery. 

9. Some special applications of ma- 
chinery to manufacturing purposes. 

GLASGOW UNIVERSITY. 

In this University the Faculty of Arts, 
which contains Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy, includes also a Professorship 
of Civil Engineering, the studies in which 
are summed up briefly as follows: 



60 



The stability of structures, the 
strength of materials, the principles 
of the action of machines, prime 
movers, whether driven by animal 
strength, water, wind, or the me- 
chanical action of heat (as in the 
steam-engine), the principles of hy- 
draulics, the mathematical principles 
of surveying and levelling, the engi- 
neering of earthwork, masonry, car- 
pentry, structures in iron, roads, rail- 
ways, bridges and viaducts, tunnels, 
canals, works of drainage and water- 
supply, river works, harbor works, 
and sea-coast works. 
A certificate of '' Proficiency in Engi- 
neering Science '^ is granted to students 
who have passed two sessions in the above 
studies, and also satisfy the examiners as 
to their knowledge of mathematics, nat- 
ural philosophy, chemistry, geology, and 
mineralogy. 

The following notes on the subject are 
by the present able Professor of Civil En* 
gineering at this University: 



61 



Notes as to Instruction^ ik Ej^gi- 
KEERiNG Science, drawn up for 

THE INFORMATION OF STUDENTS. 

1. Preliminary Education. 

Of the ordinary brandies of elementary 
education arithmetic is of special impor- 
tance to the student of engineering ; 
and he ought to be familiar in particular 
with the most rapid ways of performing 
calculations consistently with accuracy. 

It is desirable that he should be well 
instructed in engineering and mechan- 
ical drawing, as part cf his preliminary 
education ; but he may, if necessary, ob- 
tain that instruction during the intervals 
of a University course. 

It is also desirable, if possible , that the 
elementary parts of mathematics, such as 
plane geometry, plane trigonometry, and 
algebra as far as quadratic equations, 
should form part of his preliminary edu- 
cation, as thereby time and labor will be 
saved during his University course. 



63 



2. University Course. 

The course of study and examination 
adopted by the University of Glasgow is 
described in the Glasgow University Cal- 
endar, 

In drawing up that course the Univer- 
sity have had in vievv to avoid altogether 
any competition with the offices of civil 
engineers, or the workshops of mechani- 
cal engineers, or any interference with the 
usual practice of pupilage or apprentice- 
ship; and they have accordingly adopted 
a system which is capable of working in 
harmony with that of pupilage or ap- 
prenticeship, by supplying the student 
with that scientific knowledge which he 
cannot well acquire in an office or work- 
shop, and avoiding any pretension to give 
him that skill in the conduct of actual 
business which is to be gained by prac- 
tice alone. 

The University course may be gone 
through either before, during, or after 
the term of pupilage or apprenticeship, 
according to convenience. An arrange- 
ment which is sometimes found to an- 



63 



swer well is to devote the winter to aca- 
demic study and the summer to the prac- 
tice of engineering. A student who is 
not a candidate for a certificate in engi- 
neering science may attend as few or as 
many classes as he thinks fit. 
(Signed) W. J. Macquorn Rankin"e, 

OWENS COLLEGE. MANCHESTER. 

A department of Civil and Mechan- 
ical Engineering has been added to this 
College. 

The following extract from the pro- 
spectus will explain the course of educa- 
tion pursued: 

The complete course of instruction in this de- 
partment, extending over three years, embraces 
the following subjects: 

First Year, 

Mathematics. 

Natural philosophy (mechanics). 

Chemistry. 

Geology. 

Geometrical and mechanical drawing. 



64 

Second Tear. 

Mathematics. 

Natural philosophy (physics). 
. Chemistry. 
Mechanical engiueeriug. 
Civil engineering. 
Drawing and Surveying. 

Third Year. 
Mathematics. 

Natural philosophy (mathematical). 
Mineralogy. 

Engineering (Senior Class). 
Drawing and surveying. 

Successful attendance on the course will fur- 
nish a thorough scientific groundwork for the 
attainment of the knowledge requisite for the 
prosecution of the higher branches of tbe en- 
gineering profession, but it is not intended to 
supersede the practical training w^hich can only 
be obtained in the oflice of a Civil, or the work- 
shop of a Mechanical, Engineer. 

Certificates in Engineering will be granted by 
the College. The examination of these certifi- 
cates will comprise all the subjects recited 
above. 



65 



General Observations on the Poly- 
technic Schools of the Continent. 

The French commission remark on 
these as follows : 

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTES. 

^^The various institutions intended 
for commercial or industrial education 
present, under identical designations, 
very great diversities in Germany, but 
the case is different with polytechnic es- 
tablishments, which, under the name of 
GewerbS'lnstitut at Berlin, and of Poly- 
technic School or Institute in Saxony, 
Bavaria, Austria, Wiirtemberg, Switzer- 
land, and the Grand Duchy of Baden, 
are intended to train civil engineers for 
the services of bridges, roads, mines, and 
manufactures, mechanical engineers, 
manufacturing chemists, architects, for- 
est engineers, etc. In all these estab- 
lishments scientific instruction is given 
in a very high degree, and sometimes 
€ven to an extent superior to tlie re- 



66 



quirements and the end to be attained ;: 
but/ everywhere also, the technical 
branch of this instruction is cultivated 
with the utmost care. The polytechnic 
institutes are at once schools of theory 
and of application, and present, in this 
respect, a very great analogy with the 
Central School of France. 

'' In all these establishments the pupils 
enter at seventeen or eighteen years of 
age, and must possess a preparatory edu- 
cation corresponding to the special 
studies they intend to follow. The 
choice of his branches of study having 
been made by the pupil, the courses he 
must attend are indicated to him, and 
become almost everywhere compulsory. 
However, this obligation is not always 
absolute, and the liberty accorded to the 
pupils, of not attending certain scien- 
tific courses, has the eflfect of inducing 
the professors to confine their theoreti- 
cal instruction within the limits of what 
is really useful to those divisions. 

"The part of the first courses which 
forms the scientific foundation of the 



67 



technical applications is usually common 
to several of the special divisions into 
which the pupils are separated, and each 
division likewise receives the peculiar in- 
struction required for it. These divis- 
ions, more or less numerous according 
to the country, are in general the follow- 
ing : 

/^ Engineers for bridges and roads. 

^"^ Civil engineers for railways, etc. 

*^ Architects and builders. 

" Mechanics. 

*^ Manufacturing chemists. 

^^ Mining engineers. 

" Forest engineers. 

"All the institutes do not comprise 
the same number of divisions, but the 
first four or five are almost universally 
adopted, if there be no special establish^ 
ment to replace them. 

" The peculiar arrangement and grad. 
ation of the studies nearly always possess 
a remarkable feature, which is that the 
first part of the studies of each special 
division, which reo^uires one or two 
years, is so regulated that it constitutes 



68 



a body of knowledge sufficiently com- 
plete to allow a young man to break off 
there and enter advantageously on the 
second-rate positions in the career he has 
chosen. After accomplishing this first 
part of the studies, a pupil may become 
an able assistant engineer of roads and 
bridges, or of civil architecture {Werk- 
meister), a builder (Bmimeister), over- 
looker or head mechanician, a dispens- 
ing chemist, or foreman of chemical 
works, a head miner, a mining overseer, 
a forest agent, etc. In more than one 
state, pupils are even required, after 
reaching this first stage of technical in- 
struction, to pass a year or two in build- 
ing-yards, workshops, or factories, be- 
fore going through the rest of thidr 
studies. This practice, which presents 
the inconvenience of interrupting the 
studies and exposing many pupils to the 
danger of forgetting a part of them, has, 
on the other hand, the advantage of ma- 
turing their minds by practice, of show- 
ing them the applications of science, 
and of not leading to higher studies any 



69 



but those who really have a vocation for 
them. It is, however, practicable only 
under the system of out-door pupils, 
which is universal in Germany, and for 
pursuits in which there is no limit of 
age/^ 

The duration of the instruction at the 
Ecole Polytechnique is two years, that of 
the special instruction at the Ecoles des 
Fonts et Chaussees et des Mines is three 
years. These three years comprise 
eighteen months of missions on works. 

The preparatory instruction given at 
the Ecole Polytechnique has comprised, 
from its foundation, the mathematical 
sciences, drawing, physics, chemistry, 
mechanics, hydraulics, etc., as well as 
the general sciences, astronoihy, and geol- 
ogy. The pure science acquired in this 
school exceeded then, and exceeds much 
more now, the notions necessary for the 
special schools of Fonts et Chaussees 
and of Mines. But far from being dis- 
advantageous, this was the germ of an 
intellectual development, most rapid and 
most elevated, for the choicest scholars, 



70 



and to this must be attributed the large 
number of savants who have come from 
this school. 

The admission to the Polytechnic 
School is by public competition, and to 
this liberal and democratic measure, as 
well as to the scientific success of some 
pupils, is due the popularity the school 
has enjoyed from the time of its foun- 
^dation. 

The Bachelor^s degree in Science or 
Literature {Baccalaureat es sciences oic es 
lettres) is required for admission to the 
competition. The programme of the 
competition has undergone developments 
analogous to that of the instruction it- 
self. It comprises now the whole of 
arithmetic, the elementary and part of 
the complete instruction of geometry, 
algebra, trigonometry and descriptive ge- 
ometry, physics, and general chemistry. 

But the separation of the two classes 
(military and civil) is no longer so abso- 
lute in the actual exercise of the profes- 
sion as this classification would seem to 
indicate. A certain number of military 



71 



engineers abandon the profession of 
arms in order to enter into an industrial 
career ; engineers of the Artillery and 
of the Navy give themselves up in the 
workshops and ship-yards of the Govern- 
ment to studies and labors by which 
industry profits. As the Government 
has demanded hitherto but little com- 
petition from private enterprise in the 
manufacture of the arms, the ships, and 
the engines of the Imperial Navy, it fol- 
lows that important establishments are 
directed by State engineers, who seek to 
follow, if not to advance, the progress of 
private industry in works of the same 
kind. 

The instruction in the special schools 
of the Fonts et Chaussees and Mines has, 
for its object, the application of the 
sciences to public works, to the working 
of mines, and to the treatment of mineral 
matters. 

This range of scientific applications 
becomes more extensive every year ; it 
includes not only the public services, but 
nearly all large industrial enterprises. 



72 



The constant tendency of the State be- 
ing to substitute its action for that of 
private industry in the public services, 
as well as in the industrial enterprises 
which are connected with any political 
or fiscal requirements, it will be seen how 
important is the basis of the education 
given by the State to its pupils, and 
what a multiplicity of details it involves. 

In the terms of the special programme 
for the Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees, the 
instruction comprises " the construction 
of roads, bridges, railways, canals, harbors, 
the improvement of rivers, civil architec- 
ture, applied mechanics, hydraulics, the 
steam engine, agricultural hydraulics, the 
geological and mineralogical knowledge 
required in the arts of construction, ad- 
ministrative law, and political economy.'" 

The pupils are exercised in drawing 
operations, in the preparation of designs 
or projects, the manipulation and testing 
of materials, levelling, mechanical draw- 
ing, etc. 

For half the year they are sent away 
to employ themselves, under the direction 



73 



of the chiefs of the service, in the prac- 
tice of the art of the engineer. 

ECOLE CENTRAL DES ARTS ET 
MANUFACTURES. 

The studies of the Central School may 
be thus briefly recapitulated : — 

In the first year pupils follow the course 
of descriptive geometry with applications; 
analysis, comprising the elements of the 
differential and integral calculus; kine* 
matics, general mechanics, general phy* 
sics, general chemistry, construction of 
machines, and hygienics. 

In the second and third year courses 
of applied mechanics, construction and 
putting up of machines, analytical chem- 
istry, industrial and agricultural chemis- 
try, constructions (civil buildings, public 
works, and railways), applied physics and 
steam engines, metallurgy, mineralogy, 
geology, and working of mines. 

The course of construction of ma- 
chines, which is very complete, as well 
as that of applied physics and steam 



74 



engines, and the course of applied chem- 
istry, are peculiar to the Central School. 
The teaching of mechanics is also con- 
ducted on a new plan, in a spirit essen- 
tially practical. 

• An accurate idea of the education 
given at the Central School may be 
formed from an attentive study of the 
new programmes. Whoever reads them 
will admit that if they have not yet 
reached perfection, they nevertheless pre- 
sent a well-ordered instruction useful to 
all who wish to pursue an industrial 
career. 

The oral instruction of the Central 
School is judiciously completed by impos- 
ing on the pupils numerous studies of 
projects, by manipulations in the labora- 
tory, by visiting workshops, by minera- 
logical and geological excursions, and es- 
pecially by frequent compulsory examina- 
tions, not only at the end of each yearns 
studies, but also during the courses and 
at their close. • 



75 



HOLLAND. 



In the Netherlands any one who 
pleases is perfectly at liberty to exercise 
the profession of engineer, architect, 
mechanical engineer, or engineer for the 
mines. Anybody, too, who chooses may 
style himself engineer, architect, etc.; 
but no Government diploma conferring 
such title is granted except to those who 
have passed the regular examinations 
required by law. 

A\\ engineers in the Government ser- 
vice, for the Fonts et Chaussees and the 
mines in India, must be duly qualified 
by the above-mentioned diploma. 

Those who wish to obtain a diploma 
must follow a fixed course of study in 
order to prepare themselves for the ex- 
aminations they will have to pass. 

Government diplomas are given for 
Technology, Civil Engineer, Architect, 
Naval Engineer (ship-building). Me- 
chanical Engineer, Engineer for the 
Mines (metallurgy). 



78 



These diplomas are granted on pass- 
ing various examinations, namely: 

a. A general examination (called ex- 
amination A) in the different 
branches taught at the Higher Bur- 
gher Schools, serving to prove the 
candidate's proficiency in all the 
preparatory studies. 

K Examinations in the engineering 
sciences themselves, differing ac- 
cording to the diploma demanded 
by the candidate: as for Civil engi- 
neer, two examinations are required; 
namely, an examination (called ex- 
amination B) in 

a^ Higher algebra. 

h. Spherical trigonometry and analyti- 
cal geometry. 

c. Descriptive geometry. 

d. Differential and integral calculus. 

e. Application of physics. 

/. Analytical chemistry in relation to 
building materials. 

g. The knowledge of building materi- 
als for architectural and hydraulic 
works. 



77 



A. The construction of the various 

parts of buildingSo 
i. Plain architectural and hydraulic as 

well as ordinary drawing. 

An examination (called examination 0) 

in 

a. Theoretical and applied mechanics 
and the knowledge of machinery. 

\ Hydraulic architecture, compris- 
iug— 

1. The construction of roads, rail- 
ways, and bridges. 

2. Sea-dykes and embankments. 

3. The knowledge of rivers as 
means of drainage and in relation 
to navigation. 

4. The construction of canals, 
sluices, harbors, and maritime 
works. 

5. The hydrography of the Nether- 
lands, the knowledge of polders 
and mill-drainage. 

c. Domestic architecture, comprising — 
1. The construction of plain build- 
in s^s. 



78 



2. The principals of ornamental 
architecture. 

d. Topographical, ornamental, and or- 
dinary drawing, as well as the draw- 
ing of objects required in hyiraulic 
worsd. 

€. The drawing up of plans and esti- 
mates. 

/. The elements of geodesy and prac- 
tical levelling and surveying. 

g. Administrative law, relating to en- 
gineering and public works, 

RUSSIA. 

There exist in Eussia five corps of 
Engineers of the State, viz. — 

1. Military Engineers. 

2. Naval Engineers. 

3. Engineers of Maritime Construc- 
tion. 

4. Engineers of Ways of Communica- 
tion. 

5. Engineers of Mines. 

These Engineers receive their educa- 
tion in the following establishments: 



79 



1. At the School of the Academy of 
Military Engineers. 

2. At the School of the Engineers and 
Artillerists of the Marine. 

3. At the Institute of the Engineers 
of Ways of Communication. 

4. At the Institute of Mines. 

All these establishments belong to the 
State ; there are no private ones of the 
kind in Russia. 

In 1867 the Institute of Engineers of 
Ways of Communication, and in 1866 the 
Institute of Mines, were completely re- 
organized so as to furnish engineers, not 
only for the State, but also for private 
industry. Also, none of the students of 
these Institutions are now obliged to 
serve six years to the State, as was the 
case before 1864 for the students edu- 
cated at the expense of the Government. 
The students of the Institute of AVays of 
Communication have changed their name 
to that of Civil Engineers, and the Corps 
of Engineers of Ways of Communica- 
tion is now completed by these latter; 



80 



the students of the Institute of Mines 
have retained the name of Engineers of 
Mines. 

On the Course of Studies followed at the 
Institute of Ways of Communication. 

At the former, the following subjects 
are taught: 

General notions of theology. 

Law, having particular reference to 
constructions and ways of communica- 
tion. 

Political and statistical economy. 

Chemistry, general and analytical. 

Physics, general and technical. 

Telegraphy. 

Mineralogy and geognosy. 

Mathematics, differential and integral 
calculus, and analytical geometry of two 
and three dimensions. 

Descriptive geometry, and its applica- 
tion to the theory of shadows, to per- 
epective, and to isometrical projection. 

Drawing. 

Topography, astronomy, and geodesy. 

Statics and analytical mechanics. 



81 



Applied mechanics (kinematics, living^ 
prime movers, hydraulics and water con- 
duits, aerodynamics), and the steam-en- 
gine. 

Constructive mechanics (the theory of 
the strength of materials and of the sta- 
bility of the parts of buildings). 

The art of construction (studies of 
materials, works of construction and 
foundations, drawing and irrigation, the 
consolidation of lands and slopes ; the 
embankment of rivers, and other means 
of preservation against inundations ; sew- 
ers, bridges, roads, and railways ; the 
improvement of navigable streams, ca- 
nals, harbors, and docks). 

Architecture. 

The preparation of designs for mechan- 
chanical and architectural objects, for 
bridges and other constructions. 

Every student is also obliged to study 
one of three languages, English, French, 
or German. 

On the Nature of the Diplomas given. 
The students of the fifth class of the 



82 



Institute of Ways of Oommuuication, 
ufter having passed their final examina- 
tion, receive a diploma, giving them 
authority for the direction of all kinds of 
works of construction, with the title of 
Civil Engineers. 

PRUSSIA. 

The Prussian system of combining 
Architecture and Engineering rules the 
plan of lectures at Berlin and Hanover. 
Mechanical engineers find in Berlin the 
^^Gewerbe Academic/'' where extensive 
workshops offer to the students practical 
exercise, combined with theoretical in- 
struction by lectures. 

Those who devote themselves to the 
service of the State in Prussia have to 
pass through the following course of 
<3ducation. 

1. General scientific education must 
be proved by a testimony of ^^ maturity 
for university/^ which can be acquired 
by examination when leaving the upper 
class of a college. 



83 



2. Then follow three years^ regular 
study at the ^^ Bau-Akademie at Berlin/* 
or the polytechnic school at Hanover. 
Part of this time may be spent at another 
polytechnic school. 

3. One yearns practice under the super- 
intendence of State Engineers is afforded^ 
but it is permitted to combine this with 
the academical years, by disposing the 
vacation time (several months every year) 
for practical purposes; so that by adding 
these together, and with a few months 
afterwards, a full year is to be made up* 
These three conditions being accom- 
plished, the student may present himself 
for — 

The First Examination, 

Which comprises mathematics, including 
the differential calculus, all branches of 
engineering and architecture, theoretical 
and practical, geology and other auxiliary 
sciences, histoi-y of art, knowledge of 
styles, literature, perfect ability in draw- 
ing, architectural and engineering, ver- 
satility in projecting and estimating any 



84 



kind of work, calculatiug and })rojecting 
machinery, as far as it is used for build- 
ing and engineering purposes. The 
whole examination takes several days, by 
special examiners for the different stud- 
ies. Each of these gives separately a 
certificate, viz. '^distinguished,^' '^good/* 
''sufficient,^' ''tolerable," "insufficient/* 
These are brought in the full commission, 
which draws the result, " Admitted,^^ or 
•' Not admitted.'' In the latter case, the 
young man may present himself again in 
a year or two. If admitted, he receives 
the title of "Baufiihrer" (Conducteur), 
has to promise solemnly, correct, upright, 
and good behavior, is declared qualified 
for temporary paid employment under 
superintendence of an official engineer 
or architect, and has *' public faith'^ in 
measuring and receiving work and ma- 
terials, and also in carrying accounts. 

Now he is at liberty to choose his way 
of further study and practice as he likes, 
and when he thinks to be sufficiently 
prepared he may apply for — 



85 



The Second Examination. 

The form for that is to send in an ap- 
plication for '' Aufgaben" (themes, prob- 
lems) connected with the declaration 
^hat he wishes to be admitted; he is per- 
mitted to name that branch of the pro- 
fession (engineer or architect) to which 
he has principally devoted himself. This 
will be considered, to a certain degree, 
but without dispensation from the other 
branch in general. In answer to the ap- 
plication, the candidate receives two 
themes, one in architecture, another in 
engineering, and two years' time is left 
to him for coming forward with his elab- 
oration, which requires generally a year's 
hard work, consisting of about fifteen to 
twenty large sheets of drawings (plans, 
sections, facades, details of any kind, 
ma/3hinery, etc. etc. ), and accompanied 
by a voluminous explanatory report. 
The board of examiners have then to 
consider whether the elaboration is ac- 
ceptable, and if this is affirmed, a verbal 
examination takes place; the main object 



86 



t)f this being to prove the true author- 
ship of the candidate as regards the elab- 
oration, and to test his general knowl- 
edge, judgment, scientific standing, and 
practical views. 

t 

BADEN. 

At Carlsruhe in Baden there is a pre- 
paratory mathematical school, in which 
pupils are prepared for the 

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING. 

First Yearns Course, 
Strength of materials (Parts L and 

n.)- 

Applied hydraulics and the mechani- 
;cal theory of heat. 

General administrative economy. 

Political economy. 

Freehand drawing. Landscape paint- 
ing and water-coloring. 

Hydraulic works (first course). 

Road construction do. 

Constructive examples (first course). 



87 



Use and nature of mechanical instru* 
ments. 

Construction of machinery (first 
course). 

Chemical nomenclature. 

Technical course of architecture. 

Study of the orders of architecture 
(first course). 

Exercises in architectural projects. 

Constructions in masonry. 

General history of art. 

Second Year's Course. 

General study of manufactures. 

The general and more important spe» 
cial study of civil law. 

Freehand drawing ; landscape draw- 
ing and water-coloring. 

Hydraulic works (second course). 

Road construction (second course). 

The construction of railways. 

Examples and exercises in the con- 
struction of hydraulic works and roads 
(second course). 

Theoretical study of machinery. 



88 



Theory of the consumption of fuel and 
heating apparatus. 

The manufacture of machines (Part 
IL). 

Mechanical nomenclature. 

Study of architectural orders (second 
course). 

Exercises in architectural projects 
(Part II. ). 

General history of art. 

Third Course {six months). 

Hydraulic works (third course). 

Road construction do. 

The above with special reference to 
the Grand Duchy of Baden. 

Designing important engineering pre 
jects. 

Marine works. 

Practical geometry (Part IL). 

The higher geodesy. 

Method of fluxions. 

N.B. — Every year excursions are made 
to examine works either in process of 
construction or already carried out. 

For entrance to the Civil Engineering 



Department of the Polytechnic School 
at Stuttgart, the student must as a rule 
have completed his eighteenth year. 

He must possess a proper certificate of 
good moral training, and have acquired 
the necessary information. 

When under eighteen years of age the 
consent of his parents or guardians is 
necessary to his entrance into the school. 

He must give in a written declaration 
as to his education, and give evidence of 
possessing the knowledge without which 
he could not with advantage attend the 
professional courses of instruction. 

He shall prove that he possesses this 
preliminary knowledge before the princi- 
pal of the particular technical school. 

The Engineering Course extends 
throughout three years. 

First Yearns Course, 

Chemistry, mineralogy, and a knowl- 
edge of the structure of the earth. 

Practical geometry : instruments for 
the measurement of angles ; plain trian- 
gulation, and fixing stations ; eradication 



90 



of errors ; trigonometrical and baromet- 
rical levelling ; measuring distances; 
examples of foregoing; trigonometrical 
calculation of heights ; technical mechan- 
ics; stability of buildings ; elasticity and 
strength of materials ; beam-girders,, 
arches, retaining and ^^revetement ^* 
walls ; solution of practical examples ; 
statics and dynamics of fluids and gaseous 
bodies, with special reference to their im- 
portant applications in the practice of 
Engineering. 

Bridge construction (first course) : 
especially bridges in masonry, and retain- 
ing walls, with examples ; general struc- 
tures in stone and timber. 

Second Yearns Course. 

Bridge construction (second course) r 
with examples, viz., timber and iron 
bridges; foundations; management dur-^ 
ing construction. 

General study of buildings (second 
course), with examples: iron and mixed 
structures ; application of water-power 
and steam ; examples in the construction 



91 



of machinery ; history of the art of 
building (first course), especially with 
reference to the Grecian, Etruscan, and 
Koman manners of building. 

Perspective drawing: drawing figures 
from plaster casts ; landscape drawing 
from examples and from nature, in out- 
line aild shaded, in chalks, lead, pen and 
ink, brush and colors. 

Third Yearns Ooursti. 

Bridge construction (third course) : 
waterworks ; road and railway construc- 
tion, with examples; staking out; calcu- 
lating earthworks. 

History of the art of building, with 
examples (second course): especially with 
reference to Koman and Gothic build- 
ings. 

AUSTRIA. 

At the School of Engineering at Vienna 
the following is the outline of the course 
of study : 



82 

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING. 

First Year. 

Building ; materials and the art of 
construction. 

The mechanics of construction (first 
course), general division. 

Mechanical technology. 

Technical physics. 

Analytical mechanics. 

General knowledge of machines. 

Ornament drawing. 

Second Year, 

Earthworks — setting out; tunnelling. 
Construction of bridges. 
Exercises in construction. 
The Mechanics of construction (second 
course); theory of bridges. 
Spherical astronomy. 
Higher geodesy. 
The knowledge of ground and Soils. 

Third Year. 
Road and railway construction. 



93 



Hydraulic construction. 
Eailway architecture. 
Geology and mineralogy. 
Law, as relating to buildings and 
Railways. 

SWITZERLAND. 

At Zurich the following studies are in- 
cluded in the engineering course: 

. ENGI]S"EERING SCHOOL (three years' 
course). 

First Yearns Course. 

Differential and integral calculus (with 
repetitions); descriptive geometry (with 
repetitions) and examples. 

Study of the art of building. 

Building drawings; plan drawing. 

Second Yearns Course. 

Study of differential equations; dif- 
ferential and integral calculus (with re- 
petitions). 

Technical mechanics (and repetitions). 

Plane geometry. 



94 



Study of shadows and perspective. 

Topography. 

Technical geology. 

Technical physics (with repetitions). 

Construction of machinery. 

Third Yearns Course. 

Theoretical study of machinery. 

Mechanics. 

Theory of heat, and theory of the 
steam engine. 

Construction of earthworks, bridges, 
and tunnels (with repetitions). 

Examples in construction. 

Construction of roads and canals. 

Geodesy; Plan drawing. 

Astronomy; administrative law. 

Theory of construction of iron roofs. 

The manufacture of rolled iron and the 
strength and calculations for iron girders. 

In a School for Engineers at Rome, 
Italy, the following is the schedule of 
study for a three-years^ course : 

Fir^t F^ar.— Algebra, Geometry, Descriptive 
Geometry, Analytical Geometry, Physics, 
Principles of Architectural Designing. 



95 



Second Year. — Higher Algebra, Deteriminants, 
Calculus, Chemistry, Geometrical and Orna- 
meutal Designing, and Topographical Draw- 
ing. 

Third Year, — Rational Mechanics, Graphic 
Statics, Geodesy, Mineralogy, Chemical 
Analysis, Geology, Construction of Machines, 
Bridges, Roads, and Hydraulic Works, 
Engineering and Architectural Designing, 
Mechanics applied to Structures, Properties 
fo Materials. 



96 



CHAPTER IV. 

OPINIONS OF PROMINENT ENGINEERS RE- 
GARDING THE PREPARATORY TRAIN- 
ING FOR THE PROFESSION. 

At two important meetings of the 
engineering societies of this country the 
subject of discussion was Technical Edu- 
cation. The first meeting was that of 
the American Institute of Mining Engi- 
neers, at Washington, February, 1876, 
and the second a joint meeting of the 
Mining Engineers and the American So- 
ciety of Civil Engineers, in Philadelphia, 
June, 1876. 

A few abstracts of the addresses on 
these occasions are given below, with the 
names of the speakers. 

The late Alexander S. HoUey, presi- 
dent of the American Institute of Min- 
ing Engineers, in his address at the 
Washington meeting, said : 

In order that the technical school 
should be in the highest degree useful. 



97 



f rmitf ul, and economical, it must instruct, 
not men of good general education, but 
artisans of good general education. The 
art must precede the science. The man 
must first feel the necessity, and know 
the directions of a larger knowledge, 
and then he will master it through and 
through. Mark how rapidly the more 
capable and ambitious of practical men 
advance in knowledge derivable from 
books, as com»pared with the progress of 
bookmen, either in books or in practice. 
Many men have acquired a more useful 
knowledge of chemistry, in the spare 
evenings of a year, than the average 
graduate has compassed during his whole 
course. These men realized that success 
was hanging on their better knowledge. 
^Familiar with every changing look of ob- 
jects and phenomena, they detected the 
constant play of the unknown forces 
which underlie them, and longed for a 
guide to their operation, as a mariner 
longs for a beacon light. This practical 
familiarity and judgment at once re- 
vealed the importance of scientific facts 



98 



and methods, promoted their acquisi- 
tion, and guided their application. Un- 
der what comparative facilities does the 
mere recitation-room student, or even 
the mere analyst of the hundred bottles, 
study applied chemistry? It is to these 
a matter of routine duty, without a soul; 
they are neither stimulated nor directed 
by a previously created want. Beginning 
with theoretical and abstract knowledge, 
is no less an inverted process in the use- 
ful arts than in the fine arts; as it would 
be to take a course of Ruskin within 
brick walls, as preparatory to opening a 
studio, and then climbing the mountains 
to square nature with the book. 

Undoubtedly there maybe extremes in 
any form of educational meinod. For 
a youth to begin the special business of 
technical education by any method, prac- 
tical or otherwise, before he has acquired 
not only a common school education, 
but, at least, such a knowledge of polite 
literature and general science, including 
of course mathematics, as would fit him 
to enter one of the classical colleges, 



99 



should be strongly discouraged, for vari- 
ous reasons. It is useless to disguise the 
fact that the want, not of high scholar- 
ship, but of liberal and general education, 
is to-day the greatest of all the embar- 
rassments which the majority of engi- 
neering experts and managers encoun- 
ter. This statement cannot be deemed 
uncomplimentary to the class, seeing that 
they have risen to power despite the em-> 
barrassment. At the present day, the 
high-school systems founded by states 
and by private enterprise, bring such an 
education within the reach of every one ; 
and it seems of the first importance to 
promote, if not almost to create, a public 
opinion, that liberal and general culture 
is as high an element of success in engi- 
neering as it is in any profession or call- 
ing. 

But this is not all. Professional and 
business success is not, even in America, 
the chief end of life. All the social and 
political relations, and even personal hap- 
piness, are governed, not by the special- 
ties, but by the balance of mental cul- 



100 

ture. What, then, shall we say of the 
policy of wealthy parents — not indeed 
general, but too frequent— of placing an 
uncultured boy in a technical school, and 
then in works and business, without giv- 
ing him one chance to acquire a general 
and polite culture ? 

Many young men display a liking, and 
others a marked talent, in some special 
direction. There is no danger tliat these 
will be crowded out of existence by the 
culture necessary to make a well-balanced 
mind ; and tlie nearer the talent ap- 
proaches genius, the less imminent will 
be any such danger. 

The proposition then is, not that mere 
common schoolboys shiiU go into works, 
and then into technical schools, but that 
young men of more advanced general 
culture, when they do begin the business 
of technical education, shall apply to 
nature first and to the schoolmaster af- 
terward. 

It may be urged in favor of beginning 
in the technical school, rather than in 
the works, that mental capacity for the 



101 

after acquisition and application of facts 
and principles is thus developed. But 
mental training is not the product of the 
technical school alone. Habits of logical 
thinking and power of analysis and gen- 
eralization may be acquired in any school. 
And a positive objection to beginning 
with the technical school is, that it can- 
not stop at logical methods and sciences 
which are essentially abstract. It also at- 
tempts to teach about objects and phe- 
nomena, the first knowledge of which, if 
it is to be broad and genuine, must come 
from the fountain-head. 

These considerations may be further 
illustrated by the course of the inexpert 
graduate when he enters works as a mat- 
ter of business or of study. We 'have 
seen that the practical man can, at least, 
keep the wheels running and the fires 
burning, and that when he is of a cer- 
tain grade of ability and ambition, he 
will most rapidly acquire the scientific 
knowlcdrje and culture which, joined to 
Tiis practical judgment, make him a mas- 
ter. The unpractised graduate, hovvcver. 



102 

can keep neither wheels turning nor fireff 
burning ; he has not even the capacity 
of a conservator. Nor can he for a long^ 
time recognize, in the whirl and heat of 
full-sized practice, the course and move- 
ment of those forces about which his ab- 
stract knowledge may be profound. The 
youngest apprentices are more useful in 
an emergency. He must begin with the 
lowest manual processes, not indeed to 
become simply dexterous, but, as it were,, 
to learn the alphabet of a new lan- 
guage. He has started in the middle of 
his course instead of at the beginning. 
He must go back before he can advance, 
while the practician goes straight on. 
The knowledge of the schoolman about 
physical science, however often he may 
have visited works and mines and en- 
gines during school excursions, is essen- 
tially abstract ; it no more stimulates de- 
sire and power of practical research than 
the calculus creates a passion or a capac- 
ity for studying the actual work of steam 
in an engine, or the actual endurance of 
a truss in a bridge. 



103 

The disappointment of inexpert grad- 
uates at finding themselves so far from 
being experts, their inability ofttimes to 
pay for further schooling, the necessity 
that they should now begin to earn 
money, as they had persuaded them- 
selves they could so readily do upon grad- 
uation, discourage many from pursuing 
engineering, and, what is worse, send 
many out into practice who never do 
complete their technical education, but 
who, by the character of their work, 
lower the professional standard. 

It can hardly be urged against the pre- 
cedence of practical culture, that the stu- 
dent will get " out of practice '^ while he 
is in the school. He may, indeed, lose 
dexterity, but not the better fruits of ex- 
perience. In fact, those who begin as 
practicians, almost instinctively keep up 
their intimacy with the current practice. 

A most signal advantage of beginning 
technical education in the works is, that 
the mind is brought into early and inti- 
mate consideration of those great ele- 
ments of success which cannot be im- 



104 

parted in any other way — the manage- 
ment of labor and the general principles 
of economy in construction^ maintenance, 
and working. An early hioiuledge of 
these subjects moulds the whole character 
of subsequent education and ])ractice* 
There seems to bo no corresponding ad- 
vantage in beginning with the technical 
school. The fundamental mathematics 
and general information on physical sci« 
ence may bo acquired in the preliminary 
school. 

There is little doubt that the mana- 
gers of technical schools will favor this 
order of study. They want to graduate, 
not half-educated men, but experts. They 
desire, of all qualifications in the stu- 
dent, that enthusiasm which can only 
spring from a well-defined want of spe- 
cific knowledge. 

2d. But the order of education is not the 
only desirable change. Whether before 
or after their course in the school, the 
hundreds of youiig men who are every 
year entering engineering pursuits, are 
wasting their time in bad metliods of 



105 

practical study, or, if after the school 
course, they are more frequently doing 
bad work as engineers, when they should 
still be only students. Hardly two engi- 
neers acquire any part of their practical 
knowledge in the same curriculum. They 
pick it up as best they may, usually in a 
manner that is wasteful of time or dam- 
aging to the public. While the teaching 
of general facts and principles and of 
scientific method is highly developed, 
there is no organized system for guiding 
students to direct knowledge of objects 
and phenomena. This statement requires 
two explanations : I. Apprenticeship is a 
school of skill in a specialty rather than 
a school of liberal art. It is intended 
for a class of men who propose to remain 
mere workmen, and not for the class who 
intend to improve and direct engineering 
enterprises. It imparts a degree of dex- 
terity far beyond the requirements of the 
general expert, while it would hardly im- 
part in a lifetime his required range of 
practical knowledge. II. A school of en. 
gineering practice, such as that of re- 



106 

search in zoology which was established 
by Agassiz, would be wholly impractica- 
ble, because it could be nothing less than 
a vast and successful establishment for 
construction and operation in nearly all 
the departments of engineering. If such 
a school were not commercially success- 
ful, and if its range were not compre- 
hensive, it would be unsuitable and inad- 
equate. 

Now, if there can be a system of in- 
struction in the one school, there can be 
in the other. The same discipline and 
responsibility, the same guidance as to 
precedence of study, quality of evidence, 
and correctness of conclusion, should 
hold good in both cases. To say other- 
wise would be to say that all knowledge 
should come from unaided original re- 
search, and that every investigator should 
begin, not where a former investigator 
left off, but where he began. It there- 
fore appears that there can be a school of 
practical engineering, but that it cannot 
be mere apprenticeship in engineering 
practice, nor a system of engineering 



107 

construction and operation, maintained 
merely for the purposes of a school. 

The only alternative is to establish or- 
ganized schools in the various existing 
engineering works. At first, this qdea 
would seem subversive of all discipline 
and economy, but I am assured by ex- 
perts in several branches of engineeriug 
that such would not be thfe case. Let us 
take, for example, a Bessemer Avorks. A 
score of students under the discipline, as 
well as under the technical guidance of a 
master, could be distributed among its 
various departments, not only without 
detriment, but with some immediate ad- 
vantage to the owner, for while receiv- 
ing no pay, they would become skilful, at 
least as soon as the common laborers who 
form the usual reinforcements. Students 
should, of course, be expected, not to 
work when and in what manner they 
might choose, but to do good and full 
work during specific hours. This respon- 
sibility as workmen would rapidly impart 
not only the knowledge sought in the 



108 

works, but a desire for higher knowledge 
and culture. 

These considerations are not merely 
theoretical. Several students at a time, 
subjected to no discipline, sometimes 
working hard, and sometimes not at all, 
may often be found in a Bessemer works, 
and I have yet to hear of their embarrass- 
ing the management in any way. The 
laborer has no cause for interference, as 
the students are not under pay, and what- 
ever they accomj)lish is clear gain to the 
three parties concerned — the owner, the 
student, and the operative. A large num- 
ber of young men may be found studying 
in machine shops, and sometimes earning 
small pay, besides having opportunity to 
work in all departments. 

The proposition is to eiilarge and sys- 
tematize the existing desultory study in 
works — to increase its usefulness to the 
student, and, at the same time, to make 
the granting of such facilities to stu- 
dents an object, immediately, as well as 
remotely, to the owners of works. To 
this end, the schoolmaster should be not 



109 

only well read in the professional litera- 
ture, but a practical expert who could 
take charge of the works himself, so that 
whilst best aiding the students, he could 
prevent their interference with the regu- 
lar and economical operations. His func- 
tions would be, not those of an instruct- 
or, nor, to any great extent, of a clinical 
lecturer, but those of a disciplinarian. 
The students should acquire skill, in or- 
der that they might acquire judgment of 
skill and original knowledge of materials 
and forces, and the master should see 
that they did acquire them all. He might 
do some service by stated examination 
and current criticism and suggestion, but 
his chief office would be to promote hon- 
est work, and to provide opportunity for 
work in all departments with reference 
to the economy of the student^s time and 
to the owner's interests. 

It should thus appear that these some- 
what radical changes in the curriculum of 
engineering study — first, a hand-to-hand 
knowledge, acquired not desultorily, but 
by an organized system, and afterwards 



110 

the investigation of abstract and general 
facts and their relations, would largely 
economize the student's time and bet- 
ter the quality of his knowledge. The 
novice is nearly as valuable a student in 
works as the graduate, but he is a vastly 
less apt scholar in the school. My own 
belief, founded on the study of many 
typical cases, is, that this order of proce- 
dure would produce a better class of ex- 
perts in little more than half the time re- 
quired by the reverse order; that it would 
always make experts ; that it would dis- 
courage none from finishing an engineer- 
ing education which would be complete 
in its parts, even if insufficient time were 
taken to fully develop it. A well-balanced 
culture will naturally grow in scope and 
in fruitf ulness. 

In this connection it seems proper to 
say a word about the royal road to learn- 
ing, which a few ill-advised students at- 
tempt to pursue. I do not refer to their 
availing themselves of professional data 
and drawings on file in engineering of- 
fices, but T do refer to their asking engi- 



Ill 

neers and managers to furnish them spe- 
cial reports on subjects regarding which 
their own observation would be vastly 
more useful to the applicants, and quite 
as convenieut to the respondents — re- 
ports on the number and duties of work- 
men in each department, and the particu* 
lars of operation and relative cost, which 
can only be profitably investigated by a 
student, when not only the facts but the 
reasons are ferretted out by himself, 
rather than transmitted to the academic 
grove through the post-office. 

In conclusion, if it should appear upon 
larger observation, to the profession in 
general, as it does appear to many of its 
members, that this waut of coalescence, 
ranging from indifference to antagonism 
between its scientific and practical 
branches, is a real and substantial fact, a 
larger effort would undoubtedly be made 
to change a condition so damaging to the 
profession and to the public. This inap- 
preciation of one department by the other 
is not unnatural — neither side has taken 
sufficient pains to observe what the other 



112 

side lias done. The mere scientist in- 
stinctively believes that the achievements 
of the profession are so far due to the 
deductions of scientists that all other 
causes fade into insignificance; and the 
practician knows that just as far as ani- 
mal life is from the disembodied spirit, 
so far is utilization of nature from the 
formulae of heat, chemical affinity and 
mathematics itself. 

The first step is to recognize the fact, 
and I beg engineers, especially those who, 
from their scholastic habits, see least of 
the everyday embarrassments which are 
encountered by the executive depart- 
ments of the profession, to take into ac- 
count, not only the pride of class power, 
which the artisan feels as keenly as the 
scientist, but those baser elements of dis- 
union, ranging from trades-unionism to 
counting-room dictation in technical af- 
fairs. 

Having recognized the grave and com- 
prehensive character of the evil, the next 
step should be, not I think, to attempt 
any violent alteration in the existing con- 



113 

duct of engineering by the men who are 
now in active service, but to change, if I 
may so say, the environment of the 
young men who are so soon to take our 
places, in order that their development 
may be larger, higher and in better 
balance. Two co-operative methods have 
been suggested — reversing the order of 
study, and organizing the practical school. 

Whatever the course of improvement 
may be, it becomes us to leave some heri- 
tage of unity to the coming race. How 
shall we more fitly crown a century of 
engineering — a century in which our 
noble profession has risen from compara- 
tive potentiality to living energy ? And 
as its force is multiplied by the general 
advance of science, it becomes the mo- 
mentum which evermore shall actuate 
the enginery of civilization. 

Prof. Eobert H. Thurston at the same 
meeting said : The question to be dis- 
cussed here is certainly not whether the 
young engineer shall have a technical 
training, but whether he shall secure it 
in one way or another of several proposed 



114 

methods. We are not asked whetlier he 
shall have such an education and train- 
ing, but liow sliall we give it, and when 
should he seek it, and where. 

I have said that I would specify three 
courses, either of which may, perhaps, 
accomplish the desired result. These 
are: 

First. That method which is most 
usually adopted, in which the student is 
given his education, and is then sent in- 
to business. 

Secondly. That which gives the boy a 
common-school education, then sends 
him into the office, or the field, or the 
workshop, to acquire a certain amount of 
practical experience, business knowledge 
and general development, and finally 
places him in the technical school, to ob- 
tain the professional education and scien- 
tific basis for a sound reputation, which 
can there be best and most readily given 
him. 

Thirdly. The course which, although 
usually most difficult to pursue, is, if I 
may judge from observation and expe- 



Hi 



rience wilh a cou.sidei-aljle niinif>er of in- 
Ht'duccH, the most pcrfootly and econom- 
ically successful. That is, a mixed course 
of study and practice, extending through- 
out tlie early life of the man up to his 
final and complete immersion in the 
practice of hu profession. 

It is possible that I may be influenced 
by that prejudice, which most men have 
in favor of a course which has answered 
its purpose more or less fully in their own 
cases, or in cases which liave appeared to 
them illustrations of great or of (;ven 
moderate success; but I believe that the 
boy who, with natural predisposition 
toward a certtin branch of engineering, 
spends his weekly holidays and his vaca- 
tions playing about the workshop, grow- 
ing up in contact with the workmen, and 
witnessing continually all those opera- 
tions which, as he becomes old enough, 
he learns to conduct himself, imbibing, 
with that wonderful accuracy and rapid- 
ity for which boys are remarkable, all 
the traditions and recognized principles 
of shop practice, learning the construe- 



116 

tion and use of tools, and now and then 
acquiring the art of manipulating a ma- 
chine or handling a tool, I believe that 
this boy will most easily and perfectly 
secure the technics of his profession. 

The course adopted generally in this 
and in all countries is the first of those 
specified. The boy is sent to school, and 
is given the usual common-school educa- 
tion. Upon concluding this course of 
study, he is sent to the college, or the 
technical school, and a four years^ course 
of higher education having been com- 
pleted, he is sent into business at the age 
of twenty or thereabouts. 

He has then been engaged in the work 
of the student all his life; habits of 
study have been formed, and usually he 
has become, to a certain extent, unfitted 
for the vastly different kind of occupa- 
tion which is now to be taken up. He 
has acquired habits of study, a good 
memory, and the ability to utilize it 
thoroughly, and has learned to make logi- 
cally correct deductions from properly 
grouped facts. He lacks usually, how 



117 

ever, the power of quickly perceiving and 
promptly acting upon such perception. 
He probably lacks decision, has lost some 
of that strength of character which may 
have been his by inheritance, and he has 
none of that experience which is as essen- 
tial as character and knowledge to suc- 
cess in business. He may possess a great 
store of learning, both general. and pro- 
fessional, a weli-trained mind, a sound 
judgment, and all that scholastic habits 
and training can give him, but he lacks 
the noi less essential knowledge of men 
and of things which he can only obtain 
by a personal contact. He cannot man- 
age his employes without either making 
unreasonable demands upon them or 
yielding to them more than is just. He 
knows nothing of methods of conducting 
business, and cannot have become accus- 
tomed to the hard rubs which so seriously 
disturb the tyro, and which so often dis- 
courage him at the outset. 

Habits acquired in youth are always 
diflBcult to modify in later years. His 
habits are those of the student, and he 



118 

must inevitably find it a seriously diffi- 
cult matter to acquire the peculiar and 
distinctive habits of the business man. 
'Once succeeding, however, he will rarely 
fail of full success. 

The exceptional course in this country, 
and I presume in Europe, is the second 
•of those outlined. The boy goes to the 
shop, or the office, immediately after 
completing his grammar or high school 
<30urse, and learns the trade which leads 
most directly toward the profession which 
he proposes to enter; or, under the tui- 
tion of some practitioner, he acquires a 
knowledge of the ordinary routine of 
work and some idea of the character of 
the greater problem which he may ex- 
pect to be confronted with in later years. 

Arriving at the age of twenty, he sees 
the advantage of the possession of a 
knowledge of the science of his profession 
and he leaves his practice for a time and 
devotes himself to study in some techni- 
cal school. 

His difficulty now is to acquire habits 
of study and the student^s power of mak- 



119 

ing his own that knowledge which h& 
finds in books, and of grasping experi- 
mental data and of collating essential 
facts and grouping them systematically, 
and of deducing from them general laws 
of precise definition, and of well-deter- 
mined range of application. He has ta 
reacquire the mathematician's power of 
basing upon a statement of accurately 
defined conditions generalizations which 
find practical application in every de- 
partment of human knowledge. He ha& 
to regain that fondness for research and 
study of which his business life has done; 
so much to deprive him. 

On the other hand, he has learned by 
experience to prize knowledge, both for 
its own sake and for what it will enable 
him to accomplish. He has learned in 
what direction he is to expect most aid 
from literary attainments and scientific- 
knowledge. He can, to a certain extent,, 
distinguish between those branches of 
study which give only a mental gymnas- 
tic training and tliose which enable him 
to accomplish two objects simultaneously 



120 

— to acquire a store of valuable knowl- 
edge aud, at the same time, to profit by 
a DO less useful mental fulness of stature; 
becoming more of a sage and moi-e of a 
man at the same time. 

On the whole, I suspect that the ad- 
vantages of this method more than coun- 
terbalance the disadvantages, and I have 
no doubt that, could this course be gen- 
erally adopted, it would be seen to have 
an importance in the acceleration of pro- 
fessional progress which we probably 
hardly realize to-day. 

Two great obstacles intervene to pre- 
vent the general adoption of this plan. 
The first is that conservatism which al- 
ways retards the introduction of any- 
thing new, and which usually makes it 
necessary to agitate for at least a genera- 
tion before a really great change can be 
l^rought about. Even when all are agreed 
on the question of the propriety of a 
step such as this, it is usually along time 
before the public inertia is fully over- 
come. This is well illustrated by the 
fact that the necessitv of technical edu- 



121 

cation itself — proposed two centuries ago, 
and fairly inaugurated a century ago by 
Vaucanson, the father of the great Oo7i^ 
servatoire des Arts et Metiers at Paris — is 
only just now beginning to be universally 
acknowledged by even those who are not 
hampered by a traditional proclivity in 
favor of the old Greek non-utilitarian 
idea of a purely gymnastic system of 
education. 

The second great obstacle is the nat- 
ural, and almost universally observed, 
reluctance of the young man, who has 
once become fairly inducted into busi- 
ness, and who sees oppoitunities opening 
to him in the immediate future, to give 
up all and to return to the school to secure 
advantages which his reason tells him are 
still more important, but which he, nev- 
ertheless, cannot fully realize, looking 
upon them as he does from a standpoint 
which does not permit him to see them 
as distinctly as he may in after life, when 
experience has confirmed the previous 
judgment. An active, energetic, and 
ambitions young man can rarely bring 



122 

himself to the point of going back to 
the scliool after having once tasted the 
pleasures of success in business. Where 
this has been done, however, it has been 
almost invariably the fact, if I may judge 
from my own observation of quite a 
number of cases, the result is a most 
encouraging one. Could this plan be 
generally adopted, it would not only be 
decidedly better for the young man him- 
self, but it would prove vastly better for 
the schools. 

The greatest difficulty met with in 
carrying out a satisfactory course of 
technical instruction in the schools, is 
that of finding students who have suffi- 
cient ripeness of intellect and of judg- 
ment, and sufficient physical strength to 
comprehend readily, grasp fully, and re- 
tain pei'fectly, the principles which are 
presented to them. Boys are sent to 
technical schools without well-developed 
habits of study, with insufficient and 
superficial preparation, with minds un- 
ripe and with bodies still taxing their 
systems by the drain of that vital power 



123 

needed in carrying on the operations of 
physical development. Were the la:t 
considered, plan adopted, they would 
come to this work, which demands all 
the powers of maturity, with body and 
mind full developed, and with an under- 
standing of the extent, difficulty, and im- 
portance of the work to be done which 
would insure vastly better performance, 
and the accomplishment of vastly more 
in the time assigned to the course. 
The work of the instructor would be 
rendered more easy and more satisfactory 
to both himself and his pupil. The time 
would be far better utilized, and the 
greatest good would be accomplished in' 
the given time and by the expenditure o\ 
the given amount of time and funds. 

It is in this direction, I am pleased to 
find, that our President is looking fox 
higher efficiency in technical training. 
If the plan which he proposes, of mak- 
ing our larger manufacturing establish- 
ments advanced technical schools, can be 
carried out, it will prove, I am sure, a 
lone^ step in the rig:ht direction. The 



124 

final portion of the work of education 
would be done at a time when the 
student has attained sufficient maturity 
to appreciate it, and in the midst of such 
influences as will most effectually im- 
press its value upon him. I sincerely 
hope that a way may be found of initiat- 
ing this method of tuition, and that we 
may soon learn just what we are to ex- 
pect from it. Difficulties will undoubt- 
edly arise, but w^ith the exercise of care 
in the choice, from among the many of 
the few w^ho are adapted by nature and 
inclination to the pursuit of the profes- 
sion, and w^ith tact on the part of the 
instructor and a hearty good ^\\\\ on the 
side of the manager of the works, both, 
hand in hand, w^orking for the accom^ 
plishment of an object the importance of 
which both appreciate, there can arise 
no insurmoui] table obstacle to final and 
complete success. 

During the genf^ral discussion Mr. Os- 
w^ald J. Heinrich remarked as follows: 

There cannot be the least doubt, that 
at no time in the past has a partial edu- 



125 

cation and training been sufficient for a 
man to fill, creditably, any position of 
importance in the various codlings of the 
technical profession, and we need not 
expect that it will be different in the 
future. While partial experience alone, 
after perhaps a lifetime spent in a par- 
ticular calling, may fit a man for a spe- 
cific purpose, facts are not wanting to 
show that even such a man may commit 
gteat errors, or even blunders, in disre- 
garding well-known principles which 
would be thoroughly understood by one 
of far less practical experience, but pos- 
sessing a school education. It is true, a 
really good practical man, with indomit- 
able energy, may succeed ultimately, but 
probably only after dearly-bought expe- 
rience, which otherwise could have been 
avoided, and wasted time and money 
saved. This being the era when the 
state of cultivation of a nation is meas- 
nred, to a great extent, by the most 
thorough use made of waste, material, we 
we may just as well say, also, that this 
should be extended to the imponderable 



126 

items of time and brain. On the other 
hand, a young man of a thorough theo- 
retical education may deliver a lecture 
before a set of practical men which would 
fill them with admiration and awe, and 
yet he might be puzzled by the same set 
of men if called on to show how to do 
some simple practical operation. But 
the result may be, that other practical 
men may exult over the apparent superi- 
ority of the "indomitable^^ spirit of the 
practical man (probably themselves too- 
ignorant to judge of the cost of his ex- 
perience), and sneer at the xailure of the 
scholar, and thus bring discredit on the 
attempts at liberal education of man- 
kind. A long life in various practical 
callings may fit a man to fill even emi- 
nent positions, anil, by being cautious, 
he may avoid such losses as have been 
enumerated, while, on the contrary, the 
unpractical scholar, possessed, as it is fre- 
quently the case, of too much self-reliance 
and mere book experience, may waste 
time and money to overcome practical 
diflSculties. It is therefore not surpri«- 



127 

ing to see the scale often over-weighted 
on the practical side. 

It follows naturally^ particularly in 
this country, that preference is given to 
the practical man. Unfortunately^ for 
want of thorough understanding of the 
subject, the choice often falls upon a so- 
called practical man, and educational 
training has fallen into disrepute. The 
great drawback to obtaining a thorough, 
practical, and theoretical education in 
this country, will probably be less found 
in the means offered, than in the unwill- 
ingness to spend the time and money 
necessary to obtain it. 

The order of the day in this country, 
^^to make money, ^^ and, to a great ex- 
tent, judging the capacity of a man ac- 
cording to the amount of money he has, 
or is earning, will unquestionably be a 
great drawback yet awhile. On the 
other hand, it is also impossible to obtain 
suflScient knowledge and experience dur- 
ing a few years of training, and in one 
particular course of instruction. 

Taking my own experience, I had the 



128 

good luck, from my early boyhood until 
J had arrived beyond the years of matu- 
rity, to be alternately occupied in practi- 
cal pursuits, and in receiving educational 
training, at schools of various grades. 
Until I had arrived at the age of twenty- 
three years I had never earned money 
worth speaking of, but spent my time 
from my fifteenth year in apprentice- 
ships and going to various technical 
schools and public works. In my coun- 
try, boys intending to devote themselves 
to technical occupations generally pursue 
the following plan, partially even regu- 
lated by law. After passing through the 
higher grades of the common school up 
to fifteen or sixteen years of age, where 
even, to some extent, Latin and Greek, 
but particularly modern languages, and 
the elements of mathematics and natural 
sciences form a part of the system of in- 
struction, they are regularly apprenticed 
to the particular branch of business they 
intend to take up afterwards. As ap- 
prentices, they pass their regular time 
as carpenters, masons, pattern-makers. 



129 

moulders, machinists at mines or furna- 
ces, etc. Generally night schools, or 
schools during part of the winter — in- 
dustrial schools — are visited during their 
time of apprenticeship, the time so spent 
being allowed as regular apprenticeship. 
They receive little or no pay during this 
time, according to choice snd circum- 
stances. After spending several years in. 
this way, they enter the higher grades of 
the technical schools or colleges, to pass 
through a thorough course of scientific 
training, at the same time, in various 
ways, being constantly reminded of the 
practical duties necessary to be per- 
formed by them hereafter, by making 
excursions during the period of lectures, 
and during vacation visiting the public 
works and shops of the country. After 
graduating at these schools^ they enter 
again for a time as volunteers at the dif- 
ferent public works or private establish- 
ments, and are glad to be takert as such, 
without receiving any compensation, 
sometimes even paying for the privilege. 
After such a course, and proper exami- 



130 

nations^ they are only considered, even 
at private works, to be fit to take a sub- 
ordinate position, and are often only too 
glad to get it. 

I consider a good general education 
more than desirable before entering prac- 
tical life for various reasons. The prin- 
cipal reason is, that tho mind of the boy 
is more susceptible to mental training 
and exercise. During his apprenticeship, 
or attention to practical work, he will 
find out the great help he may derive 
from educational training. This is kept 
up by attending the night or industrial 
schools during that time. These pre- 
liminary studies, connected with practi- 
cal exercise, will balance mind and body, 
both essential for a young man in those 
years of life. He will be by far a more 
attentive scholar at the higher grade 
schools, at least so far as my experience 
has gone, and will profit m^ore by attend- 
ing such schools than generally is th« 
oase with those who have first passed 
through the entire collegiate or classical 
course of studies. I consider this a very 



131 

natural consequence of the necessary 
course of studies in industrial schools, 
they being better designed to prepare for 
subsequent training than the old faculty 
studies of law, medicine, theology, etc. 

At the joint meeting of the Mining^ 
Engineers and the American Society of 
Civil Engineers, in Philadelphia, in dis- 
cussion of the subject of engineering, 
education. Dr. E. W. Eaymond, the* 
President, made an address of which the- 
following is an abstract : " I wish to 
emphasize what I remarked on a former 
occasion, that whether technical instruc- 
tion be preceded or followed by manual 
practice, one thing must precede both,, 
to insure the highest success in any 
profession, and that is general culture. 
For success is a social matter; it de-^ 
pends upon a man^s influence over men. 
Knowledge of facts and laws in nature 
will not achieve it. The most thorough 
metallurgist or engineer needs to be able- 
to make other men recognize his ability. 
Nay, long before he can acquire thor- 
oughness, he is dependent upon other 



132 

men for every chance of practice. A 
liberal education gives power over men; 
and the technical education, which gives 
power over matter, will be twice as easily 
gained, and twice as effective when 
gained, if it is grounded upon the men- 
tal discipline and the moral strength of 
a, culture wider than its own. 

The more one observes the careers of 
men about him, and the more one wres- 
tles with difficulties of one's own, the 
more profound becomes the conviction 
that a young man makes a great mistake, 
w^ho, because he is going to take a tech- 
nical education in engineering, deliber- 
ately decides that he will not have any 
general culture to begin on. I am not 
spea!:ing of the men who, struggling 
against cruel necessity, make their way 
honorably and effectually, in spite of 
early disadvantages. Such often win a 
place among the greatest names. But 
the reason is very simple. It is just the 
same reason as makes the Indian a hardy 
son of the forest. Excessive exposure, 
hardship, insufficient food and clothing. 



133 

do not make men hardy; they merely 
kill off the men who are not hardy, and 
those who survive must be the vigorous 
ones. Poverty, ignorance, isolation, dif- 
ficulty, are not elements of strength; 
they are obstacles over which strength, 
and strength only, can triumph. Infi- 
nitely better they are than the luxury 
that drowns ambition and breeds swamp- 
gases of indolence and vice; but in them- 
selves they are hindrances. A man who is 
truly a man will not be enervated, but en- 
larged and stimulated by liberal culture 
I would appeal to no one sooner than 
to our self-made men for a hearty recog- 
nition of the valtie of such preparation. 
They have felt the lack of it too keenly 
not to wish for their children a better 
chance. Now, with due caution against 
the waste of time, I cannot doubt that a 
general culture, though it may not be 
the quickest preparation, will lead to the 
best results. I remember the remark cf 
a man of great success and quick obser- 
vation, who assured me that if his son 
would become a metallurgical engineer. 



134 

he would put him through college first, 
and let him begin his special studies 
afterwards. I am not prepared to say 
that an entire college course is necessary, 
or that it is the best preliminary course, 
though I have a high opinion of it, but 
something equivalent to it, or to a part 
of it, that is, what our German cousins 
give to their young men in the Gymna- 
sium, They give to them a liberal cul- 
ture in the beginning; and it is a very 
remarkable thing, that amongst the 
many skilful metallurgists and mining 
engineers from Germany with whom I 
have had the pleasure of becoming ac- 
quainted, I have found a large propor- 
tion who had learned Greek and Latin, 
could perhaps even play on some musical 
instrument, and were widely acquainted 
witli literature. 

Finally, we must recognize the fact 
that individual character is, after all, 
the decisive element in success. We 
may devise plans without end to facili- 
tate the manufacture of skilful engi- 
neers, but the men who have fidelity, 



135 

honor, virtue, courage, and that genius 
^hich has been well defined as the power 
•of application, will make their way sure- 
ly to the top, either by the help of our 
S/rrangeinents, or in spite of them all ; 
and of these born and bred leaders of the 
profession, those who have the broadest 
culture, other things being equal, w^ill 
stand easily first. 

ABSTRACT OF MR. THOMAS C. CLARKE^S* 
ADDRESS. 

I would recommend that the engineer- 
ing pupil get as sound a general educa- 
tion as possible, including the principles 
of the sciences. Let his early education be 
rather that of general culture, developing 
his mind, strengthening his powers of 
observation and judgment, teaching him 
to generalize. This course he should, if 
possible, pursue up to the age of eighteen 
or twenty. Before that age the mind 
and body are not generally sufficiently 
developed to endure the physical hard- 
.ships of engineering. Then let him 

* American Society of Civil Engineers. 



136 

spend several years in practice in the 
machine shops, in the field, in the draft- 
ing-room, and in the office. Let him 
learn to deal with men and things, and 
to understand the conduct of affairs. 
Whether he will return to his books 
again depends upon what sort of a man 
he is. 

I believe that all men, or nearly all 
men, from the natural constitution of 
their minds, fall into one of two classes. 

They are either the men of executive 
ability, the practical men, par excellencey 
those who have a natural talent for af- 
airs, the organization of labor, and the 
direction of men ; or else they are the 
men of science, the investigators, the men 
who are hungry for knowledge, and will 
learn the reason why. Very rarely one 
man unites bot^ qualifications. James 
Watt did, and so did Professor Morse, 
but such men are rare. 

If the young engineer belongs to the 
executive class, having once plunged into 
practice, he will probably never go back 
to his books. But the other kind of man 



137 

will do so, either by himself or in the 
schools. When he will have found out 
exactly what his deficiencies are, and he 
will be able to judge (much better in 
most cases than his professor can) what 
it is desirable for him to learn, you may 
be sure of one thing, he will study the 
principles of science, and pay very little 
attention to their application as taught in 
the schools. He will not spend his time 
over the pages of Eankine, learning how 
English permanent way was made twenty 
years ago, before Mr. Bessemer was 
heard of. Whatever he studies will be 
of value to him, and no one can judge 
of that better than he can. 

One thought more and I have done. 
To all classes of engineering students let 
me point out the immense value of ac- 
quiring and fully understanding the sci- 
entific metliod. 

This is, first, the art (for it does not 
come by nature) of observing facts and 
acquiring data; second, of observing the 
relations of phenomena and of drawing 
conclusions therefrom; third, of verifying 



138 

those conclusions by observation and ex- 
periment. 

Robert Stephenson, in alluding once 
to the vast progress of modern engineer- 
ing, in which he himself had born so 
distinguished a part, said : *^^ We found it 
a craft, and we have left it a profession/' 
That is to say, it had been put on a sci- 
entific basis, and by the use of the scien- 
tific rnethod. This, after having been ap- 
plied to the construction of railways, is 
now beginning to be applied to their 
management, and the results are remark- 
able, and promise to be more so. 

ABSTRACT OF THE ADDRESS OF MR. COLE- 
MAN" SELLERS, AM. SOC. C. E, 

It is safe to say, that a young man, 
after passing through college properly, 
and having a good sound education, who 
determines to succeed in the workshops at 
any hazard, will in two years make him- 
self so valuable in the position that he 
occupies, as to be elevated by his em- 
ployer into something higher. 

Now I say that I thought of this very 



139 

deeply in the case of my own sons, and I 
did precisely, and I am doing precisely 
what I have just told you. I was not at all 
surprised, when I found my eldest son, 
after leaving the university, accepting a 
position in the workshop a little better 
than a common laborer. He commenced 
by chipping the scale out of the boiler. 
1 tell you it Avas the best thing for him, 
because he made a beginning at the bot- 
tom, and did not shirk his work; it was 
as much as to say that he was willing to 
learn all that could be taught him in the 
Bhop, and he rapidly rose to a position 
higher than many who had been longer 
at work, but who had less book learning 
to back them. 

It is impossible to make engineers out 
of pupils who have not engineering abil- 
ity. There must be something in them 
that will compel them to take it up as a 
profession, and succeed in it. I am now 
clearly of the opinion that as it is not in 
the power of most young men to take 
the college course, and then afterward to 
take the technical course; that it is far 



140 

better for them to obtain what scientific^ 
knowledge they can in a good college, or 
in a technical college where something 
else is taught besides the exact sciences, 
where they can be taught the languages, 
not the dead languages but the modern 
languages, and taught at the same 
time rhetoric, composition, and all that 
will enable them to express themselves ; 
and by all means let them have a good 
sound basis of mathematics before they 
venture their education in the work- 
shops. Then when they have entered 
the workshops there will be time to ac- 
quire technical education without schools. 
I have no doubt that many who have 
been liberally educated, have, after en- 
tering the shop, felt the want of some 
technical education, and have broken 
away from the shop, and gone into 
schools to learn. They felt the need of 
obtaining more knowledge, and that the 
time they spent in the college or school 
was not sufficient. 

I do not think it advisable as a rule 
however, to take the boy from the work- 



141 

bench and send him to school a second 
time. I have in some instances noted 
the effect of such a course upon young 
men to be disadvantageous. If the boy 
has left school too soon, and feels after- 
wards the want of more knowledge, it is 
well enough, if he can, to return to his 
studies, but such return makes sometimes 
a disadvantageous break in his habits. I 
look upon it rather as a means of mend- 
ing a defect in education rather than a 
course to be pursued as prearranged with 
an objecto By not attempting to teach 
too muoh ^^ practice ^^ in the schools, time 
is left to give a good grounding in gen- 
eralities, which cannot fail to be of use 
in any walk of iife^ and which can be 
better acquired when one is young. The 
practising engineer Jhas not only to master 
his profession, but he must learn how to 
place himself and his works before men 
so as to be seen of them and appreciated 
by them. He requires a very extended 
knowledge ; all learning will at one time 
or another be of use to him ; and habits 
of study, which will enable him to con- 



142 

tinue a student to the end of his days, 
will the more readily fit him to rise in 
his profession, and make him a leader 
among men. 

ABSTRACT OF THE ADDRESS OF COL. W. 
MILNOR ROBERTS, AM. SCO. C. E. 

It may be necessary, or at least ad- 
Tisable, when considering the subject of 
the proper method of training the young 
engineer, to have special reference to the 
particular branch of engineering he in- 
tends to follow. For any branch there 
must of course be a proper foundation, 
to the extent of a good English education 
(if German and French are added, it 
would be decidedly advantageous), and 
a ready use of figures, and of mathemati- 
cal principles, to precede both technical 
engineering study, and practice — this in 
any branch. 

In mining engineering particularly, 
the student, to be reasonably accom- 
plished, should also understand chemis- 
try, as well as geology and mineralogy. 



143 

In the other branches of engineering, 
chemistry may not be so necessary or 
important, although it is a kind of 
knowledge which is useful to all engi- 
neers. An accomplished civil engineer 
should be familiar with mechanical en- 
gineering, and not ignorant of mining 
engineering, though he need not, neces- 
sarilj^, be an expert therein ; it could 
hai'dly be expected of him. His chief 
or highest duties are not embraced in 
either of those branches, and his princi- 
pal requisite is ready, sound judgment, 
and the more this is strengthened and 
confirmed by experience, the better for 
his employers as well as for himself. 
Sound Judgment can never be wholly the 
result of education, either technically in 
the schools, or in engineering practice, 
because it does not always accompany 
knowledge or even experience. For civil 
engineering, the teaching and training 
in those higher schools, where this de- 
partment, with the use of instruments, 
is a regular course, the student can learn 
all that is necessary for him to know. 



144 

before takiug a very subordinate position 
in a regular engineer corps in the field, 
where he would still have much, very 
much, to learn, which cannot be conveyed 
to him thoroughly in any other than this 
final school. 

It may not be equally practicable to 
organize "practical schools under the 
direction and discipline of experts in en- 
gineering works/^ in all of the branches 
of engineering, but in mining and metal- 
lurgical engineering it seems to me to be 
quite practicable and desirable, likewise 
in mechanical engineering. In civil 
engineering the real school is largely 
in the field, beginning with the rapid 
preliminary explorations of lines of 
canals, or railroads, or projections of 
water-works, etc., extending through the 
processes of provisional and final loca- 
tions, up to the planning and construction 
of the various works and structures 
appropriate to the particular improve- 
ment. Those who by great experience 
become experts in civil engineering, are 
usually too closely occupied in the p^o- 



145 

fessional conduct of works lo take an 
active or controlling part in the business 
of educating younger members, excepting 
as above indicated, by having them in 
their corps on active duty of some kind. 
The day may come in this country when 
civil engineering may assume a somewhat 
different shape, but at present it appears 
to me that the polytechnic schools in our 
country, in which civil engineering is a 
leading feature, furnish adequate train- 
ing for young men desirous of becoming 
civil engineers. Of course the more 
thoroughly the teachers are themselves 
grounded in the practice as well as the 
principles of civil engineering, the better 
it is for the pupils, though it may be well 
to consider that the most expert, and the 
most experienced in practical engineer- 
ing, are not necessarily the best teachers. 
There are men peculiarly well adapted 
to shine and succeed as teachers of young 
engineers, who would not be selected to 
take the responsible practical manage- 
ment in particular lines of civil engi- 
neering, while there are many instances 



146 

of good practical engineers who would be 
likely to do no honor to a technical pro- 
fessorship. 

FROM THE ADDRESS OF MR. ASHBEL 

WELCH, MEMBER OF THE AMERICAIS^ 

SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 

I suppose all agree that the future engi- 
neer should remain in the school or college 
till he is eighteen or twenty years old, 
and should get all the general education 
ho can, up to that time, before he begins 
his professional education. 

But experieace shows that a long course 
of technical study, preceding and unac- 
companied by professional practice, is 
highly inexpedient. I propose to glance 
at some reasons why it is so. 

The object of the philosopher is to 
attain scientific results; the object of 
the engineer is to attain directly benefi- 
cial ends by using those results. One 
gets up the tools, the other works with 
them. Engineering education should 
therefore aim at readiness and skill in 
the application of science, rather than at 



147 

scientific investigation or accumulation. 
The habit of mind good for one, is, when 
carried far, bad for the other. Too long 
study of science without applying it in 
practice, induces a habit of allowing 
knowledge to lie dormant in the mind, 
of regarding it as end, not as means, and 
to a greater or less extent, produces in- 
capacity for applying it. 

Many years ago, a foreigner was found 
on a work under my charge, plying the 
shovel and wheelbarrow, who had ac> 
quired a large amount of knowledge b} 
years of study at a continental uni 
versity. But though he knew so much, 
;and was so expert in abstract science, h(; 
was unable to make any earthly use o\ 
it. He could not be taught to apply ix 
to anything. In learning a giant, ho 
was a child in everything else. This 
may be an extreme case, but it illustrates 
the tendency of all study and no prac- 
tice. 

On the other hand, practice keeps one 
on the qui vive to know the reasons for 
doing things, and the laws that operate. 



148 

Old George Stephenson, for example, 
picked up a great amount of knowledge, 
because his practice made him hungry 
for it, and enabled him to assimiliate it. 
Men of practice come to know, by what 
looks like intuition, things that science 
teaches other men only by a long course 
of reasoning. The habit of applying 
knowledge is more influential in induc- 
ing men to acquire it, than the posses- 
sion of it is in inducing them to apply 
it. 

A habit acquired in the practice of 
turning knowledge to account, is more 
valuable than a large amount of knowl- 
edge. In Franklin^s time, myriads of 
men had much more knowledge than he 
had, but his habit of applying it made 
his little more valuable than their much. 

Of course a man must have some 
science before he can apply it. But this 
he can get at school, or college, or in a 
sliort course at a technical school, while 
his mind is yet flexible. But a long 
course, reaching to a more matnie period 
of life, fixes in the now rigid mind 



149 

a habit unfavorable to engineering suc- 
cess. 

It can hardly be doubted that instruc- 
tion in works should^ when possible, 
accompany that in the technical school ; 
just as the young lawyer or doctor learns 
to practice while studying. 

Too much time spent on scientific 
abstractions and refinements (however 
useful such things may be to the philos- 
opher) is more than wasted by the 
engineer; it unfits him for practical use- 
fulness. Napoleon said La Place was 
good for nothing for business; he was 
always dealing with infinitesimal quanti- 
ties. 

A general ought to have been a captain 
in his younger days, but if a man con- 
tinues to perform captain^s duty up to 
the age of fifty, he is not likely to make 
much of a general. So an engineer 
should begin low down. But the 
student should not be kept long in 
acquiring mere manual skill. What he 
wants is mental skill. He should be 
practically familiar with iron, but it 



150 

would do him little good to be expert in 
making horseshoes. 

It is only early practice that can teach 
the self-reliance, energy, and enterprise 
so essential to an engineer's success. 

The engineer has to do with cases 
where the laws of nature act in different 
directions. Science alone cannot often 
give the exact resultant of those forces, 
sometimes unknown, often separately in- 
capable of measurement. Experience 
must give the habit of estimating what 
allowances should be made for unknown 
actions and unknown quantities. Men 
of science once told the engineers to 
make fish-bellied rails, so that they 
should not break in the middle. The 
foundry laborers that broke up pig-iron 
could have told them that the rails 
would break close by the supports. Sci- 
ence teaches that with perfectly elastic 
bodies the angle of reflection is equal to 
the angle of incidence; practice teaches 
that with material bodies as they are, it 
never is. Time was, when for such 
reasons, there was some truth in the say- 



151 

ing, that tlie stability of a structure was 
inversely as the science of the builder. 

The best engineering is that which in 
the long run accomplishes the purpose at 
the least cost. The engineer should not 
be a mere engineer, looking only at en- 
gineering results, for then he will lose 
sight of their subordination to economic 
results. In this way so many parties 
have been ruined by splendid engineer- 
ing. Actual practice, where money is 
scarce, is the best way to impress this on 
the young engineer. He should learn 
not to do, propose, or advocate anything 
that will not pay. 

ABSTRACT OF THE ADDRESS OF PROF, 
FAIRMAN ROGERS. 

" In my opinion the time at the disposal 
of the student, before he enters upon the 
actual practice of his profession, can be 
best employed in the schools, without 
practical work, further than the small 
amount which may be necessary to fix in 
his mind the theoretical principles which 
have been presented to him, provision 



152 

for which can be made by very simple 
workshops and laboratories under the 
control of the professors. Beyond that, 
I doubt very much whether the attempt 
to combine practical with theoretical in- 
struction gives an equivalent for the time 
spent, and I believe that the interrup- 
tion of the course by a year or two years 
of practical work in a shop or in the 
field would not in the main be attended 
wdth any satisfactory result. Habits of 
continuous study are formed with diffi- 
culty, and should not be broken in upon 
until the time arrives for them to be 
exchanged for habits of work. 

The industrious student may, with, 
undoubted advantage, spend his vaca- 
tions in each year of his study in such 
observations of practical matters as he 
may have opportunities for, a course 
which will result in fixing in his mind 
very strongly the principles presented to 
him by his text-books and his instruc- 
tors. 

There are so many things that can be 
taught properly only in the regular pro- 



153 

gressive methods of the schools, such a^ 
pure and applied mathematics, and 
mechanics, and the like, that there 
seems to be every reason for embracing 
the opportunity which can never occur 
again, and requiring the student to 
devote his time exclusively to such sub- 
jects. 

Once launched into the hurry and 
excitement of practice, the young man 
finds the systematic pursuit of such 
knowledge difficult, if not almost impos- 
sible. 

Other subjects in the same category 
are those based upon the digested ex- 
perience of many investigators, which,, 
though to a certain extent empirical, 
and wanting the logical completeness of 
mathematical investigations, must be 
adopted as embodying the principles 
which underlie practice. 

Belonging to this class are the laws of 
the regimen of rivers, the action of cur- 
rents, and the flow of tidal streams, or 
the various matters of shop or construc- 
tive practice which a man must know 



154 

-thoroughly at the very outset of his 
career, and which have been reduced to 
form by the labor of hundreds of indi- 
viduals. 

We may be assured that the young 
man who goes out into the world with an 
entirely thorough theoretical education 
properly given to him by competent, 
progressive, live instructors, will be in a 
position in which he cannot make seri- 
ous mistakes, and from which he will 
surely in the long run distance those 
competitors who are less thoroughly pre- 
pared. 

The absence of an exact knowledge of 
the principles which underlie practice is, 
I think, painfully apparent in the larger 
number of so-called practical men, and 
while we constantly hear the practical 
man regretting that he has not had the 
opportunity of obtaining that theoretical 
knowledge which appears to him to be so 
desirable, we rarely hear the man whose 
theory has preceded his practice com- 
plain in the opposite direction. 

In a case that came under my notice 



155 

some years ago, a portion of a new build- 
ing was covered with a half-span, lean-to, 
iron roof, from which was suspended a 
light ceiling which hid the framing from 
view. With the first heavy fall of snow 
of the succeeding winter the roof fell in, 
and the removal of the ceiling disclosed 
a curious condition of affairs, which 
accounted sufficiently for the accident. 

The contractor being sent for, ex- 
pressed unbounded surprise, and insisted 
that, as he had put up several tvhole-sip'dn 
roofs, from the same drawing, of eighty 
feet span, this half'SipSin roof of only 
forty feet ought to have been unneces- 
sarily strong, and it was difficult to ex- 
plain to him that, by cutting his drawing 
in two, he had converted an inch and a 
half round iron tension rod, which was 
amply strong, into a compression piece 
which was useless. In my opinion no 
properly educated graduate of an engi 
neering school, in his first year of prac 
tice, could possibly make that mistake, 
and yet I am certain that similar things, 
coming out of well-known workshops. 



156 

will present themselves to the minds of 
many of my hearers. 

A similar case is stated to have oc- 
curred in England, where somewise indi- 
vidual attempted to give additional sup- 
port to a whole-span iron roof which was 
thought to be rather light, by inserting a 
row of columns under the centres of the 
principal rafters, with the same satisfac- 
tory result. 

In individual cases the precise method 
of education may be modified by the 
peculiar connections of the student giv- 
ing him extraordinary facilities in certain 
directions, but I Avould sum up my re- 
marks by saying that the best time for a 
young man to acquire a systematic 
knowledge of the fundamental principles 
of his science is while he is in the school, 
and while he is attending to what is 
usually called his education, and we may 
feel assured that he will rapidly over- 
come whatever temporary disadvantages 
he may labor under in the outset of his 
career for want of practical knowledge, 
and in a thorough and scientific manner 



157 

apply those unchanging principles which 
have sunk into his mind and become a 
part of his professional nature. 

remarks of the president, dr. r. w, 
raymo:n^d.* 

It has been a very remarkable dis- 
cussion in some respects. The unani- 
mity of feeling in one particular has been 
manifest, namely, as to the value of 
broad and general culture. This is very 
agreeable, because it shows that all the 
engineers are in favor of that thing; yet 
I may say that the parents in this coun- 
try as a class are just the other way. 
When an American father talks of 
putting his son into any special profes- 
sion he says, ^' I am not going to send 
my son to college, because he is going to 
be an engineer. I will take him out of 
col lege. ^^ He says, '' My son is going to 
be a merchant; I will take him out of 
college ;^^ and parents are all the time 
pulling their sons out of college because 
they are going to go into some special 

* Am. Institute of Mining Engineers. 



158 

line. As I say, the tendency on the 
parts of fathers is exactly contrary to 
the tendency on the part of experts. 
When a man happens to be both an ex- 
pert and a father, like my friend, Mr. 
Sellers, then the boy gets a wise prelim- 
inary training. But he has put his boy 
into his own line, and he understands 
what is necessary in that line. It is not 
difficult for a hen to bring up her 
chickens; it is when the hen hatches a 
duck that the trouble comes in; and it 
is the fathers who are ministers, doctors, 
and lawyers, who have seen some young 
men rise to wealth perhaps in engineer- 
ing, and have got a vague notion that it 
would be a good thing to make engineers 
out of their sons, it is such fathers who 
are apt to think they must take off a 
portion of the general culture, because 
they fancy it does not require so much 
general knowledge to enter the engineer- 
ing profession. They may be the sound- 
est men on other subjects, but they 
know nothing about engineering. 



159 



ABSTRACT OF THE ADDRESS OF PROF. 
C. 0. THOMPSOlir. 

In this discussion some have held 
that the order should be handicraft, 
technics, culture; others culture, tech- 
nics, handicraft; and others would ar- 
range in other ways. But there is one 
objection to all these sandwiching 
methods. Practically we cannot hold 
our young men in training till twenty- 
five. They will go at twenty-one or 
twenty-two. The period of sharp acquis- 
itiveness, the most precious part of 
school-life, lies between sixteen and 
twenty-one. Now, whichever part of a 
boy^s triune discipline for an engineering 
life is allowed to usurp that period to 
the exclusion of the others, that will be 
the dominant force in his after-life. If 
culture, then practice will suffer; if 
practice, culture will suffer. Either part 
will be, as it were, attached to, or 
subordinated to, the one which " rules 
the favored hour/^ Hence it seems to 
me that all possible culture should be 



160 

secured before a student begins his 
technological course, and that it should 
be looked to ever after. It must not be 
forgotten that culture is a result, or 
rather a growth. All we can do is to 
prepare the soil. The plant will as- 
suredly grow. Perhaps, too, the best 
and only useful culture is to be looked 
for in the life for which any school 
training prepares a man; for I take it,, 
we are not now speaking merely of the 
cultivation of the aesthetic part of man, 
but of that discipline of the judgment,, 
awakening of the imagination, sharpen- 
ing of perception, repression of conceit, 
and elevation of motive, which consti- 
tute a serviceable and efficient man of 
refined taste and unquestionable integrity 
and courage. 

Let us secure as large a foundation as 
possible m general knowledge before the 
beginning of the technical course, and 
not lose sight of the bearing and rela- 
tions of all knowledge during this course. 
But let us blend technics and handicraft 
in the technolo^-ical course. The drift 



161 

of this discussion has been unmistakably 
towards the affirmation that the technol- 
ogist of the future is to be the educated 
workman. It is to the man whose own 
hands can execute, if need be, the behests 
of his brain, that the great engineering 
works of the future are to be entrusted. 
Engineering, so happily defined by the 
retiring President as " the arts of pro- 
duction and construction/^ including 
mechanical, civil, mining, and chemical 
branches, more and more condenses into 
mechanics. Indeed, all branches of 
engineering seem to react upon mechan- 
ics, forming compounds like different 
acids upon a common base. We are 
coming to think that, if a man is to be a 
civil engineer, he had better begin by 
being a mechanic. If he is to be a min- 
ing engineer, he had better begin by 
being a mechanic. If he is to be a 
chemical engineer, he had better begin 
by being a mechanic. This is true, at 
least, of all study of applied science. 

Now, as to the amount of preliminary 
culture, it is desirable that at least what 



162 

is included in fitting for college should 
be secured. I do not think graduates of 
college in general will be drawn to tech- 
nical pursuits. The whole drift of the 
college is averse to them. Few boys are 
so powerful polarized as the sons of the 
honored member who spoke last evening. 
What might be very easy for Mr. Sellers 
would bevery difl&cult forafatberinothep 
walks. In short, it seems to be the best 
available method for the average boy to 
fit him for college, then send him through 
a technical course in which handicraft 
shall find a place; then let him enter 
some manufacturing or engineering 
works^ and see what it all means. 

ADDRESS OF MR. FREDERICK J. SLADE,. 
MEMBER OF THE AMERICA:tT INSTI- 
TUTE OF MIXING ENGINEERS. 

Mr. Chairman: If it were certain 
that all the young men who enter our 
technical schools had the natural quali- 
fications necessary to be engineers^ then 
the problem of what the course in such 
schools should consist would be materi- 



163 

ally simplified. But when we remember 
that it is impossible at the early age at 
which young men enter on such a course, 
to determine accurately the natural bent 
of their minds, the necessity of first im- 
parting a liberal general education is 
apparent, so that those unfit for engineer- 
ing pursuits may have other fields opened 
to their view, and may be drawn away 
from a profession for which they have 
no fitness. I therefore agree with the 
remark that has already been made, that 
if it were necessary to choose between a 
strictly technical education and a more 
general course, the latter would be the 
more desirable. 

I believe further, that not only is it 
desirable on account of the various types 
of mind to be found in a body of unde- 
veloped young men, that education 
should be general rather than special, in 
order that none may be graduated with- 
out having received a training which 
shall be of sei-vice in his particular case, 
but that even were the classes composed 
of none but those qualified to become 



164 

engineers, it would be much better that 
the instruction should be confined mainly 
to the theoretical part of the profession, 
leaving the practical details to be learned 
afterward, in that school of actual prac- 
tice from which the engineer never grad- 
uates. I know that this would require 
some of our schools to give up some of 
the very things that they most pride 
themselves upon, yet I believe the effect 
in the end would be good. 

I think it has very generally come 
within our experience, that those engi- 
neers who have received that very elab- 
orate education in foreign schools, of 
which so much has been said, do not 
make the most rapid progress in the 
practice of their professio*n. The effect 
of theii- study seems to have been to give 
them a disproportionate confidence in the 
sufficiency of the formulae and text-books 
of the school, to solve every problem 
that arises in practice, and the faculty 
of judgment so necessary as a check upon 
theoretical deductions becomes dwarfed 
by disuse. It sometimes seems even to 



165 

be the case, that those who have received 
this training refuse to admit the neces- 
sity of correcting their theory by facts, 
and hence shut themselves out from the 
greatest of all schools. 

It has been remarked with force by 
Prof. Thompson, that the acquisitive 
powers act with greatest vigor before the 
age of twenty; and he argues that on 
this account both theoretical and practi- 
cal education should be crowded into 
this period. While it is no doubt true 
that the mind is at this age better able 
to receive scientific education, and to be 
moulded by it to correct methods of 
thought, it may be doubted whether the 
ability to weigh the value of practical 
expedients is as much a characteristic of 
a young as of a more experienced mind. 
It would, therefore, appear to be wiser 
that the period of life in which the mind 
is best adapted to receive that scientific 
training which is to shape all its future 
action, should be devoted to the study of 
science, ratiher than wasted in the vain 
attempt to acquire an incomplete and 



166 

delusive acquaintance with practice. One 
very important result of this would be, 
that the young graduate could not by 
any possibility imagine himself an en- 
gineer, and would thus be ready to com- 
mence at the bottom, and on a true 
foundation lay up in intelligence and 
order, that experience which is the capi- 
tal of the engineer. 

It may be asked, why should not the 
teaching of practice loith theory have the 
same effect in establishing a proper bal- 
ance as when acquired subsequently ? 
To which it may perhaps be answered, 
that the conditions under which the 
practical matters are presented are in 
the two cases widely different. In the 
school they are presented as problems 
solved, in actual practice as problems to 
be solved; and the fact of the solution 
being at hand in the former case gives a 
false idea of complete mastery of the 
profession, the precise reverse of that 
modesty which is forced upon one, in the 
latter case, by the uncertainty whether 
he shall be able at all to reach a solution 



167 

As to the proposition tHat the student 
should in the midst of his theoretical 
course^ take up the study of practice as 
presented in the workshop, I think it is- 
a question whether the time so speua 
would not be spent wastefully. It is in- 
deed highly desirable that the young 
man while pursuing scientific studies, 
should be sufficiently familiar with at 
least the surface facts of practice to give 
life and meaning to the abstract truths 
which he is studying. But this acquaint- 
ance he can acquire in those afternoon 
visits which every young man, having a 
taste for engineering, is sure to make to- 
such works as are within his reach (and 
in these days there are a multitude in all 
places), while he could acquire but littlo 
more by a constant attendance in the 
shop, unless in actual employ and with a 
weigJit of responsibility resting upon him. 
It is only when the sweat comes out over 
a man in those emergencies, when he* 
knows that something must be done, and 
done quickly, that he begins to lay up 
valuablfe experience. 



168 

Now, it would be impracticable to 
provide such employment for students; 
and I think it may also be said that in 
nine cases out of ten, where it could be 
provided, the young man would never 
return to school, because the ties that 
would bind him to his actual work would 
be too strong to be severed. 

In a word, then, let the schools give a 
liberal and scientific education; let the 
student give concrete form to abstract 
principles as he may from visits to such 
works as are within reach, and by the 
reading of current engineering literature, 
and let the acquisition of practical knowl- 
edge begin and go on without interrup- 
tion after the school course has ended. 



169 

CHAPTER V. 

co:n^clusio]!!^. 

The preceding pages have fully set 
forth the kind of knowledge that it is 
desirable should be acquired as a ground- 
work of engineering practice. The tech- 
nical schools of different countries agree 
substantially in the branches in which 
proficiency must be attained by the stu- 
dent before the seal of their official ap- 
proval can be granted to his application 
to be counted as a beginner in engineer- 
ing practice. In the order of impor- 
tance mathematics takes the first place ; 
then come physical sciences, drawing, 
and language. With these some famili- 
arity with the practical work of the pro- 
fession must be acquired. So surveys^ 
plans, maps, and estimates form a part 
of the curriculum. For the student 
wich ample means the way is clear. He- 
may select his school and follow the pre- 
scribed course. Having completed it, if 



170 

lie is content to accept a humble situa- 
tion and will patiently wait for promo- 
tion until his experience shall have ren- 
dered his services valuable, his introduc- 
tion to the higher duties and responsi- 
l^ilities of engineering life is assured, un- 
less indeed he has entirely mistaken his 
profession. 

For him who must earn his living be- 
fore he is able to complete such a course 
of study as is universally pronounced 
requisite, the way to proceed is not so 
clear, especially if the occupation he is 
obliged to follow is not of a kind to bo 
in itself of service as a means of educa-* 
tion in the line of his chosen profession. 
As in such a case he must depend upon 
his power to acquire knowledge in hi^ 
leisure hours, and complete by himseli 
the studies which his more fortunate 
competitor is aided to accomplish. H 
he has completed a fair academic or 
high school course before he enters upon 
daily service, as an earner of wages, hi§ 
condition is far from unfavorable, espe- 
cially if he has fully determined to over- 



171 

come obstacles in the way of acquiring 
knowledge. If the daily occupation be 
that of an artisan, it is an open question 
whether his training is not of the best 
kind to insure success. For the education 
he needs is of two kinds — theoretical and 
practical ; and the period of life most fa- 
vorable to the acquisition of either kind 
is between sixteen and twenty years of 
age. It is not of so much importance 
that the trade at which he works should 
be directly related to engineering prac- 
tice. The work of any artisan method- 
ically and steadily pursued under skilful 
guidance, is an education of the eye and 
hand and judgment of the highest value. 
The opinions of men eminent in the pro- 
fession might be referred to, which are 
quoted in the preceding pages, which are 
quite pointedly to the effect that the 
best order of preparation is first the 
school, then the shop, and then the fin- 
ishing studies. The reasons given for 
this order are that the training of the 
hand and the eye, as well as that of the 
mental powers, should be brought within 



172 

the period of easy acquisition ; also that 
the eagerness to learn through study is 
much stimulated by alternation of school 
and shop^ and so the accomplishment of 
the final studies is rendered easier. 

Observation of the pupils in the night- 
schools of our great cities certainly justi- 
fies the belief that daily labor in the 
shop in no sense unfits the learner who 
has once been a student, for steady prog- 
ress in acquiring knowledge. Promi- 
nent engineers now living have achieved 
their successes without other aid from 
instructors than that obtained in the 
public day-schools and the night-school. 
The higher technical schools afford the 
best means of entering upon the profes- 
sional work of the engineer' ; but other 
routes are open, and with patience and 
persistence the goal may be reached. 

It should be borne in mind that the 
learning period ends only with life. The 
graduate of the Engineering School can 
rightfully regard his degree only as a 
certificate that he is prepared to become 



173 

One part of the education of the young 
learner has not, it seems to the writer, 
been sufficiently urged as a necessary 
part of the school training. That is, 
some branch of natural science ; one 
which will stimulate a search for speci- 
mens : either entomology, botany, or 
mineralogy (or lithology). The latter is 
probably to be regarded as the best when 
the direct bearing upon the after prac- 
tical experience is considered. Nothing 
in the way of education so trains the 
powers of observation as the search over 
field and through forest for specimens. 
No phenomenon escapes the notice of the 
young naturalist. If he be a collector 
of minerals or rocks, every ledge and 
every bowlder is an object of interest, 
and his pursuit takes no account of sea- 
sons. It is of inestimable advantage to 
the engineer that the minute features of 
a structure or a landscape are seen at a 
glance ; but such seeing depends upon 
^arly training and practice under the 
stimulus of the pleasurable excitement 



174 

which always accompanies out-door 
searching for specimens. 

It is a natural sequence to this course 
of training that the learner b'ecomes a 
student of natural phenomena, and the 
action of streams^, the decay of rocks, and 
the changes wrought by tides and winds 
are to him subjects of absorbing interest. 
Every riv-ulet is to him the analogue of a 
great river, and will exhibit, either spon- 
taneously or through slight artificial con- 
straint, all the features of erosion, trans- 
portation, and deposit, forming bars^ 
natural levees, and deltas which are only 
miniatures of those greater ones which 
at times become the anxious considera- 
tion of the experienced engineer. The 
rock whose surface crumbles under the 
exposure to rain and frost, be it ever so 
little, is. noted and regarded as worthless 
to the builder. The dunes formed even 
though temporarilj by the wind along 
sandy shores are studied as likely to af- 
ford valuable hints in regard to regulat- 
ing and controlling those larger accumu- 
lations of similar kind which sometimes 



175 

prove troublesome to the peace and com- 
fort of a community. 

It would be easy to continue this line 
of advice to much greater extent, but the 
proposed limits of this little treatise for- 
bid. For hints about pursuing this kind 
of out-door observation, an excellent aid 
is to be found in a small work by the 
eminent author De La Beche, entitled 
''How to Observe/' 

It can hardly be necessary to urge the 
student who designs to be an engineer to 
carefully observe the progress of struct- 
ures in course of construction, and espe- 
cially to note the little devices by which 
weights are raised, structures are stayed, 
streams deflected, etc. The object of the 
last few pages has been to advise such a 
training of the perceptive faculties that 
the smallest of the expedients of an engi- 
neering work could not well escape no- 
tice. 

That the broadest possible culture is 
at least desirable in an engineer has been 
aptly urged by more than one of the em- 
inent speakers whose expressed opinions 



176 

are quoted in the foregoing pages. That 
he should cultiv.ite a knowledge of busi- 
ness habits as early as possible is suffi- 
ciently evident from the fact that his 
dealings are largely with the leading 
business-men of the community. The 
same consideration suggests that a repu- 
tation for the strictest integrity is as es- 
sential to him as to the banker or the 
judge, and for like practical reasons. 



APPENDIX. 



ABSTBACTS OF ADDRESSES AKD REPORTS 
FROM VARIOUS SOURCES. 

Extracts from an address before the 
American Society of Civil Engineers at 
its First Annual Convention, in 1869, 
by John B. Jervis, Honorary Member of 
the Society. 

All professions must have a beginning. 
There must be preparation, just as when 
a fabric is to be reared, the rubbish must 
first be removed and a proper founda- 
tion prepared on which the structure is 
to rest. You will suspect, from this, I 
am going to talk to the beginner, rather 
than to those who have a matured skill 
and experience. 

177 



178 

A civil engineer I understand to be a 
man who devises and executes works, as 
canals, railroads, water-works, bridges, 
mining, etc. I regard it as different 
from the strictly mechanical engineer; 
but the civil engineer should know much 
of mechanical engineering, though he be 
not a professor in devising and construct- 
ing machinery. • 

After a fair education in the ordinary 
-elements, the young man that designs to 
prepare for the profession of an en- 
;gineer should study mathematics so far 
;as to qualify him to make any computa- 
tion of quantities, and to carry forward 
any investigations that he may find it 
necessary to make in pursuing the science 
of mechanical philosophy, and especially 
in regard to the strength of all materials 
that may be required in the structures he 
may be called upon to erect, and the 
capacity of his structures to support the 
object for which they may be designed. 

The engineer, having got thus far in 
his study, he is prepared to enter on the 
study of mechanical philosophy. In this 



179 

branch he will hardly be able to learn too 
much. It enters deeply into the affairs 
of an engineer. In this, especial atten- 
tion should be paid to the character of 
all the materials required in the varied 
structures it is his business to provide 
for, and the form and position of ma- 
terials best adapted to the end it is 
sought to secure. 

The next object I should propose for 
study is hydraulics. This enters into 
nearly all the questions in engineering, 
especially canals, water-works, mining, 
and bridges. In some respects it is a 
difficult science, not in its mathematic or 
theoretic aspect, but in the difficulty of 
obtaining accurate data on which to rest 
the computations for specific objects. 
This difficulty only renders its careful 
study more important, and it will be 
found that much has been reduced to a 
scientific form, and if not in all cases 
exact, is so close an approximation as to 
afford a reasonably safe guide in practical 
hydraulics. 

. I have not noticed the surveying feat- 



180 

ure, for, with a proper knowledge of 
mathematics, it is only necessary to learn 
the use of instruments in order to estab- 
lish lines and levels. The education, 
thus far, may be obtained, at any school 
that has a good mathematical depart- 
ment. 

The next step in education should be 
the study of structures of various kinds 
that have been erected by experienced 
engineers. These have been published 
in various books, and may be advan- 
tageously studied without a professed 
teacher. So far, the student is merely 
a student, and is only well prepared to 
enter on the practical or real study of 
his profession. 

Every work detailed and set forth in 
books has been erected with some specific 
object, and under circumstances that are 
not likely to be in all respects found 
again for any similar work. The young 
engineer will, therefore, require great 
care in recommending a structure he has 
examined in a book, to see that the cir- 
cumstances surrounding his case are 



181 

analogous to the original. Neglect, in 
this respect, may lead to very unfavor- 
able results. With a sound knowledge 
of principles in regard to form of struct- 
ure best calculated to secure the object 
for which the work is designed, and to 
afford the necessary stability and per- 
manence, and of the materials best 
adapted to this purpose, he will be able 
to make an intelligent criticism on what 
he examines, and judge how far it may 
be a guide in his operations. 

The next step in this traiuixig is to 
enter on the field of practical duties 
under the guide of an experienced en- 
gineer. In this situation he will have 
opportunity to examine the unbroken 
ground, learn the reasons for the various 
parts of the work, and why it may be 
proper to depart from the order of some 
similar work he may have noticed in his 
studies. Here he will see the ground to 
be occupied, and, by communion with his 
principal, will see how far it may be 
adapted to the proposed work — the vari- 
ous needs of the structure, the facilities 



182 

for materials most suitable^, and how far 
a modification in plan and materials may- 
be required to meet the circumstances 
that may exist. 

No skill in forming lines and levels, 
and in devising structures, will complete 
the education of an engineer without an 
intelligent capacity for conducting busi- 
ness. This is an important item in his 
education, and indispensable to a suc- 
cessful practice. The training of his 
mind should make this an easy acquisi- 
tion. He will often find it necessary for 
his own investigations to make written 
statements and tabulations, which will 
call into action his skill in arrangement 
— even his common note-book will exer- 
cise his powers to put his work in an in- 
telligible and convenient form. If he 
keep in mind that he should be prepared 
to protect himself against forgetting his 
own work, and be able, at any time, to 
give an account of his doings, he will feel 
the necessity of order and ready refer- 
ence, which are the essential elements of 
business. Some people suppose an en- 



183 

gineer, as a matter of course^ knows noth- 
ing about business management. An ab- 
surd mistake. No profession more needs 
thorough business qualification. It is 
still a further error to suppose an en- 
gineer, by his education, is unfitted for 
systematic business. The fact is the very 
reverse. His education peculiarly quali- 
fies him for a systematic management of 
business, and his professional duties de- 
mand the most varied knowledge in this 
respect. The first operation in his busi- 
ness life is to set forth, in intelligent 
form, the work he has been doing; a line, 
a level, or a series of computations to be 
vset forth in order. Then he conies to 
prepare contracts and specifications for 
work, which demands an accurate knowl- 
edge of all he wants done, set forth in 
items so described that there will be no 
misunderstanding; an important busi- 
ness matter. His work now under con- 
tract, he must measure and compute all 
items of work, and these must be so ar- 
ranged, in a suitable book, that they can 
be referred to, and made the basis of his 



184 

occasional and final statements of work 
done. So far I have only treated of that 
branch of a business education that re- 
lates to the method of preparing tables, 
accounts, and statements. . . . The most 
important feature in business is still to 
be considered, namely, a knowledge of 
men and of the value of work. I know 
of no occupation that better qualifies a 
man in this respect than engineering. 
He has to deal with men who, as a class, 
are proverbially sharp in the conduct of 
their affairs, with whom many questions 
arise that are not to be determined by a 
simple computation, and even computa- 
tions will be questioned. With these 
men the engineer holds a delicate rela- 
tion, as the umpire between the contract- 
ing parties; and will often be placed be- 
tween plausible claims on one hand, and 
a sense of duty on the other. In these 
circumstances he will have great oppor- 
tunity to obtain a business knowledge of 
men. Some he will find upright, though 
they may have mistaken views of their 
rights; and others he will find under 



185 

much pretension to seek what they should 
not have. Under various conflicts the 
engineer must aim to do Justice between 
the parties. They have committed to 
him the duty of adjusting all questions, 
and in this he must examine the bearing 
of all claims, and though he may be an- 
noyed at what he thinks an unjust de- 
mand, he is in duty bound to render 
equity, according to the terms of the con- 
tract. The engineer being in the em- 
ploy of one of the parties, it is indis- 
pensable that he maintain the reputation 
of an upright man, for on this the con- 
tractor must depend. If he shows a dis- 
position to take undue advantage, not 
warranted by the terms and spirit of the 
contract, the contractor will lose confi- 
dence if this is against him, and, if in 
his favor, the other party will be dis- 
satisfied. In all such cases, committed 
to the judgment of the engineer, he will 
need the best experience as a business 
man, and especially to cultivate the 
golden rule of doing as he would be 
done by. It is always prudent for an 



186 

engineer to so prepare his specifications 
of work that no misunderstanding may 
arise. But this cannot always be done, 
as contingent work is sometimes, and I 
may say often, required. . . . 

The business capacity of the engineer 
will, in most cases, be tried in his inter- 
course with the managers of the enter- 
prise. In the utmost good feeling they 
will be very apprehensive of expense, and 
desire various methods of reduction, 
which will appear plausible to them, as 
well adapted to their circumstances. The 
engineer, very naturally desires to make 
a work that will be creditable to his pro- 
fession. But he must listen respectfully 
to the suggestions of his principals, and, 
so far as he can, modify his plans to meet 
them. The engineer may be well satis- 
fied his plans are best adapted to the 
permanent interest of the enterprise, and, 
so far as he is able, should convince the 
managers they are so. In this he will 
find need of all his business tact, to yield 
when circumstances, and especially the 
want of funds, afford a reasonable apol- 



187 



ogy, or even a necessity, for so doing. It 
may not, in fact, lie practicable to make 
his work as permanent or complete as its 
true interest requires, for want of funds, 
or for want of the most suitable materials. 
Of these he must exercise his discretion 
as a business man, as well as a skilful 
engineer. 

There is another point in this con- 
nection that will often be more trying 
than the above. The managers of such 
enterprises have been known to conduct 
their affairs with a view to make them 
subservient to their private interest or 
ambition. They may do this more or 
less, without interference with the duties 
of the engineer, in which case he may 
know nothing of it, or, if does know, lie 
may not be bound as a duty to take notice 
of it. But it is very likely to come in 
conflict, and he will be expected to shape 
his professional duties in a way that will 
promote private interests at the expense 
of the institution. Great skill and adroit- 
ness will be practised, and if the engineer 
has any weak side it will surely be found. 



188 

These things will always be done under 
profession of serving the institution^ To 
avoid wTong-doing, and, at the same time, 
give no just offence under the circum- 
stances, will surely try the business capac- 
ity of an engineer. The matter in issue 
may bring a crisis that will compel resig- 
nation. 

In review of the brief discussion I have 
given, I think I am fully warranted in 
the opinion that the training and prac- 
tice of an engineer should make him 
peculiarly eminent as a business man, not 
less than skilled in designing and erect- 
ing works in his profession. 

In railway building, for the most part, 
the engineer has been regarded merely 
as an expert, to run lines and levels, and 
compute quantities. When the work, in 
this respect, was done, he was regarded 
as of no more use, and to retain one of 
his assistants to do a little levelling or 
surveying, for some contingent work, 
was all that was regarded as necessary 
from his department. No doubt some 
engineers who have built railways had 



189 

no professional qualification to go fur- 
ther. No one can complain of them; 
they did all they supposed required of 
their profession^ and this was, perhaps, 
all their employers expected of them as 
engineers. It may be said why not em- 
ploy an engineer of more experience; to 
which it may be replied, the}^ probably 
were not to be had. It has been a great 
error on the part of engineers and pro- 
prietors that the impression to a great 
extent prevailed that in regard to ma- 
chinery, station grounds, buildings, and 
shops, the engineer gave way to the 
mechanic. This circumstance lias put 
back the profession, keeping the engineer 
from the proper study of these duties, 
so that only a small comparative number 
have given proper attention to this im- 
portant branch of professional duty. So 
long as the engineer did not assume 
these duties, the resort to the mechanic 
was very natural, and he would be re- 
garded as best qualified to make up the 
complement of the railway. The excuse 
for this is, the profession in general had 



190 

little knowledge of what was wanted in 
these respects, and the engineer was re- 
garded as a sort of refined surveyor, and 
as knowing nothing about engines, cars, 
and shops. Now, the professional point 
is, that the engineer's education should 
•qualify him better than any other to 
provide for everything about a railway. 

The engineer constructs a railway, 
and should know better than any other 
what sort of machinery is best adapted 
to its use. Of course he will go to the 
mechanic for his engines, cars, etc., but 
he should know the general character, 
and be able to specify the leading or 
principal characteristics of what he 
wants. Certain accommodations will be 
wanted for the current use and repair of 
the machinery, which requires much 
thought and care on the part of the 
engineer to secure the greatest conven- 
ience and economy in the operations of 
business. In most cases it will be nec- 
essary to keep in view the enlargement 
of stations and shops, to provide for a 
probable increase in traffic, and, while 



191 

building for present wants, take care to 
provide, by method, for enlargement at 
a future day, with grounds secured for 
this purpose, so that no pulling down 
shall be required. In the history of our 
railways, it is palpable these things have 
been imperfectly considered. It has 
been stated why our works have been 
subject to these imperfections ; but that* 
does not excuse their want of improve- 
ment. One reason for neglect may be 
found in the fact that, for the most 
part, engineers did not regard this as 
properly belonging to their profession ^ 
and when a railway was put in operation 
they withdrew, as having accomplished 
their mission. 

The engineer eminently depends on 
character. The interests of others, in 
various ways, are committed to him. On 
his capacity for his profession, and his 
integrity as a man, reliance must be 
placed. He will meet many difficulties 
of a physical, and not a few of a moral 
nature. He is in a progressive calling, 
and has occasion to be cons tan tlv learn- 



192 

ing. I suggest a ready observation of 
what he may see, a constant study and 
reflection on the varied duties of his 
profession, and a watchful guard against 
committing himself until he is fully pre- 
pared to set forth his views clearly and 
decidedly. To neglect the latter will be 
very likely to embarrass, and may defeat 
tha object of his labors. 



Suggestions Offered to the Council of 
the Institution of Civil Engineers on the 
Subject of Engineering Education. 

FROM SIR JOHIS^ RENl^IE, F.R.S. 

Any person intended for the prof ession 
of a civil engineer, in my opinion, should 
be educated as follows : In the first place, 
he should be sent to some good school 
until about twelve years of age, where he 
may be thoroughly grounded in reading, 
writing, composition, arithmetic, algebra, 
oreometry, Englisli, Latiti, and Greek 



193 

grammar. I mention the two latter, as 
it will enable him hereafter to acquire 
with facility European or other languages 
as occasion may require, particularly 
French, German, Italian, Spanish, etc. 

From about twelve to sixteen he should 
be sent to one of the junior universities, 
such as King's College, the London, 
Edinburgh, Glasgow, or Dublin Universi- 
ties: here he should attend the different 
classes of mathematics, algebra, geometry, 
plane and spherical, trigonometry, as- 
tronomy, natural philosophy, geology, 
geography, chemistry, electricity, and 
drawing, assisted by private tutors, who, 
by frequent examinations, should make 
him thoroughly understand what he has 
learned, and enable him to pass with 
credit the several public examinations 
which he must undergo. 

At the age of sixteen, if he has been 
diligent and ivell looked after, he ought 
to have obtained a sound general educa- 
tion, particularly as regards the scientific 
department connected with the profes- 
sion of a civil engineer. 



194 

At sixteen he should be apprenticed to 
some practical manufacturing engineer 
of eminence, where he should' commence 
working with his hands, and go through 
all the departments of pattern-making, 
founding, turning, fitting and erecting 
steam-engines, marine, locomotive, and 
fixed, and all the variety of machinery 
connected with them and railways, and 
a general knowledge of ship-building, 
whether of iron or wood, also the me- 
chanical drawing and calculating de- 
partments connected witli them. 

After having been well employed in 
this manner for three or four years, com- 
bined with his previous education, he 
ought to be well versed or grounded at 
least in mechanical engineering, which 
forms one of the most important parts 
of the education of a civil engineer. 

Having completed this he should be 
sent to some good scientific and prac- 
tical nautical and land surveyor for a 
short time, where, if diligent, he will 
soon be able to acquire a knowledge of 
levelling, laying out lines of roads, rail- 



195 

ways, canals, drainage, and mapping large 
-districts of country and sea-coasts. 

He should then study practical hy- 
draulics upon a great scale, such as the 
principles and management of rivers, 
embanking, draining, sewage, water sup- 
ply, irrigation, the planning and con- 
struction of harbors, docks, bridges, 
light-houses, masonry, carpentry, earth- 
work, etc., with a thorough knowledge o;. 
the use and best mode of applying ma- 
terials of all kinds ; and having previously 
obtained a knowledge of working Iron 
and timber, he should do the same wdth 
stone, cements, and other materials. He 
-should likewise practise himself in draw- 
ing up detached reports, plans, specifica- 
tions, and estimates of the various works. 
In these departments he will be greatly 
assisted by reading and carefully study- 
ing the reports and plans of Smeaton, 
Telford, Stephenson, Brunei, Watt, Een- 
nie, and other eminent engineers. 

He should also study architecture, so 
tis to be able to design and construct all 
the buildings connected with civil en- 



196 

gineering. such as railway stations, sheds,, 
and warehouses. 

Public buildings and ornamental 
architecture, strictly speaking, are rather 
out of his line ; nevertheless, if he has 
time and taste for it, he can do so at his 
leisure. 

With regard to languages, it certainly 
if^ desirable that an engineer should 
know well German, French, and Italian; 
having previously laid the foundation of 
them, he can easily acquire them at his 
leisure. 

With regard to the higher classes of 
physics and mathemati<is, these, although 
not absolutely necessary for the practice 
of civil engineering, still, no doubt, 
they form a most valuable accomplish- 
ment lor those who have time and taste 
to acquire them. With regard to the 
honors conferred by purely scientific so- 
cieties, they are open to any one who 
chooses to qualify himself for them, and 
desires them; and if either his executed 
works or writings are worthy of these 



197 

distinctions, he will have no difficulty in 
obtaining them. 

After a candidate for civil engineer- 
ing has creditably gone through the 
above education, he will have arrived at 
about the age of twenty-three or twenty- 
four years ; he may then confidently 
present himself to any engineer in large 
practice as an assistant at an adequate 
salary, or he may practise upon his own 
account; but he must always bear stead- 
ily in mind, that notJmig hut constant 
industry and hard work, cornhined with 
a thorough determination to overcome all 
obstacles in his progress, can make him a 
good engineer. I should not recom- 
mend Eton, Harrow, Oxford, or Cam- 
bridge; they may do for the law, medi- 
cine, or the Church, not for the engineer. 

The above course of education ap- 
pears to me the best adapted for a civil 
engineer, and if the candidate will only 
pursue it zealously and steadily he may 
in time become a credit to the profession. 



198 

FROM MR. J. M. HEPPEL. 

What seems to lie at the root of the- 
question is to define the character and ex- 
tent of knowledge which it is desirable 
a young engineer should possess pre- 
vious to entering on the regular and 
responsible practice of his profession. 
On such a subject no doubt much diver- 
sity of opinion will be found to prevail,, 
as well as on the best modes of acquiring 
such knowledge as is by general consent 
admitted to be requisite. I take it that 
I shall best meet the wishes of the 
committee by a simple statement of my 
own view. 

To begin with, I think it extremely de- 
sirable that the young engineer should 
possess all the ordinary acquirements of 
a well-educated gentleman. He should 
be a moderately fair classical scholar, and 
should understand French and German,, 
and if also Italian and Spanish, so much 
the better. In English, besides a fair 
acquaintance with history and general 
literature, he should be master of com- 



199 

position so far as to express himself in 
speaking or writing with precision and 
force. Coming now to what may be 
considered more special, he should have a 
sound knowledge of common geometry, 
so much of trigonometry and conic sec- 
tions as is usefully applicable in practice, 
of arithmetic, the nature and use of 
logarithms, of ordinary algebra, and of 
the higher analysis, so far as the general 
principles and most useful applications 
of the differential and integral calculus, 
^ complete acquaintance with the theory 
of statics, and so much at least of dynam- 
ics as will enable him fully to understand 
any ordinary treatise on the action of 
the chief motive powers, as gravity, 
water, or the various forms of heat. He 
should be fairly acquainted with chemis- 
try, geology, physical geography, and 
most of those branches of science 
which are commonly grouped together 
under the name of natural philosophy. 
Even yet we have come to nothing 
which may be said to belong to the 
special training of an engineer, being 



200 

rather acquirements which would be de- 
sirable and useful to most persons, and 
which are more or less possessed both by 
private gentlemen and members of other 
professions: those which follow have 
more special application. 

The young engineer should have a 
good practical acquaintance with the 
mechanical properties of the principal 
materials of construction, and a sufficient 
knowledge of the trades of a carpenter^ 
smithy millwright, bricklayer, and mason, 
to be a competent judge of their prod- 
ucts. He should be a good mechanical 
draughtsman, and able to sketch and 
design clearly by hand. 

He should have a thorough practical 
acquaintance with surveying, with the 
setting out of works from plans and 
levelling, and with the construction and 
adjustment of all instruments used in 
these operations. He should be expert 
in taking out quantities from plans and 
framing estimates, and be a suflBciently 
good accountant to fully understand and 
control accounts of expenditure in works. 



201 

Lastly, he should, both by reading and 
observation, and, if possible, by actual 
charge and responsibility, have collected 
a good body of knowledge of the best 
practice at home and abroad in executing 
important and difficult works. 

The list appears long, but I doubt if 
it is by any means complete. I think, 
however, with these attainments, or a 
good proportion of them, we should have 
the making of a very fair engineer, and 
this is all that can be expected from edu- 
cation; the rest must follow from the 
genius, perseverance, opportunities, and 
good fortune of the individual. 

Looking now back to my list, I think 
it will be apparent that all the literary, 
mathematical, and purely theoretical 
matter, including some knowledge of 
chemistry, geology, geography, and nat- 
ural philosophy, would be easily acquired 
by a bo}^ of fair abilities at a public 
school in five years (say from ten or 
eleven to fifteen or sixteen), followed by 
one or two years^ attendance on lectures 
at University or King^s Colleges. At 



202 

least so much would be acquired that the 
rest might easily be made up by private 
study concurrently with the subsequent 
pursuit of the more practical part. 

Mechanical drawing should also, if 
possible, have been to a certain extent 
acquired during this period; but if not, 
a short time should be given to it spe- 
cially, including the making of accurate 
and detailed sketches, with dimensions 
of machinery and works, and then draw- 
ing them to scale. As soon as the pupil 
has attained to some degree of proficiency 
in this, he should give from one to two 
years to the learning of some mechanical 
trade, amongst which I should prefer 
those of a smith or millwright: he should 
work full hours with the men, and as 
soon as possible earn wages. 

The order in which the rest of the 
subjects I have mentioned are acquired 
does not strike me as very important, 
and the pupil might profit by the best 
opportunities. They might, as it seems 
to me, all be learnt in the office of an 
engineer, always supposing two things: 



203 

first, that his practice is sufficiently ex- 
tensive ; next, that the efficient education 
of the pupil, and not the mere utiliza- 
tion of him, is steadily kept in view. 
No doubt there are objections. The 
office of an engineer is not, and probably 
cannot be made, an educational establish- 
ment. In the first place, he has too 
much personal occupation to be able to 
attend much to pupils; and in the next 
place, where work has to be got through, 
a pupil will inevitably be more or less^^ 
kept to what is most pressing, or wliat 
he can do best. But supposing the most 
conscientious regard to be paid to his 
interests, even with the most extensive 
practice, opportunities must be waited 
for, whilst in a more restricted one they 
may be entirely wanting. 

It is chiefly this latter class of con- 
siderations which lead me to insist on 
so much preliminary knowledge before 
entering an engineer's office. A young 
man thus fortified would be very dif- 
ferently circumstanced from a boy just 
taken from school, and would pi-obably 



204 

find few things intrusted to him, how- 
ever unpromising, from which informa- 
tion and improvement could not be 
derived. He would himself understand 
his own wants, and would not allow op- 
portunities to be lost simply from inabil- 
ity to understand and appreciate them. 
Some might be more fortunate than 
others in the extent and variety of sub- 
jects presented to them; but I think, 
with moderately fair treatmeut, very fe^ 
could fail in the course of three or four 
years to obtain such a body of information 
as would enable them to evince their 
capacity for responsible charge of works. 
Leaving now for a moment this plan> 
which is the one usually followed more 
or less in this country, let us consider 
another, partially adopted here, but much 
more extensively on the Continent — that 
of colleges or complete establishments 
for the training of civil engineers. As 
far as the purely scientific and literary 
part of the course goes, there seems to 
be no reason why such a college should 
not impart as sound and complete in- 



205 

struction as any similar institution, sup- 
posing always the basis of a single pro- 
fession to be sufficient to maintain it on 
a satisfactory scale; but then for this 
alone a separate establishment seems 
hardly requisite, as there appears to be 
nothing but what can be supplied by 
existing schools and colleges, and sup- 
plied, as it seems to me, if the courses are 
properly selected, so as to give full oc- 
cupation to the student in the acquisition 
of what he really requires without super- 
addition of redundant or superfluous 
matter. If we look, however, beyond 
this to the more special training, I think 
some marked disadvantages, as compared 
with the former plan, will become ap- 
parent. 

The work is not real work. The plan: 
of the bridge may be neatly and care- 
fully drawn, its strength calculated, its 
cost estimated; and all this may be sub- 
mitted to judicious criticism, but nobody 
has got to build it. A survey may be 
made of the neighborhood of the insti- 
tution, or of a line of road or farm in its 



206 

vicinity, and nicely plotted, but it has 
not got to pass a Committee on Standing 
Orders. A line of canal may be laid out 
and levelled, and a working section and 
detailed plans prepared, but it is exempt 
from verification by that most uncom- 
promising examiner — water. 

I do not at all mean to deny that even 
in these practical branches much useful 
information might be acquired, and the 
advantage of being able to instruct in 
classes and of selecting the order of sub- 
jects is obvious; but I do think that this 
kind of instruction cannot obviate the 
necessity of a subsequent probation in a 
real office and in actual work; and in 
many cases it might possibly have been 
there acquired as rapidly and certainly 
more completely. 

In my point of view, then, the question 
is brought within a very narrow compass. 
The engineer's education should begin 
at a good school, best at a public one. 
Following this should come a college 
course, more or less prolonged. He 
should then master some mechanical 



207 

trade, or the order of the two last might, 
if more convenient, be inverted, and 
should, in any case, finish with a certain 
term of pupilage under a practising en- 
gineer. 

Extract from Scott Eussell's Work 
oi^ Tech:n^ical Education.* 

What Technical Education should we 
give to the Mechanical Engineer or Ma- 
chinist ? — From the days of James Watt 
and Arkwright until now, comprehend- 
ing the whole of the present century, 
the mechanical engineer or machinist 
has formed one of the most important 
^classes of this country, and has conferred 
on it immeasurable benefit. It was the 
mechanical engineer and the manufact- 
urer who, together, during the early 
part of the present century, while the 
whole of Europe was overrun by the 

* Systematic Technical Education for the 
English People. By John Scott Russell, F.R.S., 
-etc, London, 1869. 



208 

curse of war, created wealth in this 
country so rapidly as to enable her to 
struggle through a burden of expendi- 
ture to which there has been no parallel, 
and to come out of it prosperous and 
wealthy. 

There are no occupations or trades 
concerning which there could be so little 
difference of opinion as to the practical 
importance of special technical educa- 
tion, as this class of mechanical engineer 
and machinist. Philosophers have de- 
fined man as the tool-using animal ; but 
if the man of this century were defined, 
the ^^engine-maker'' and *^ machine- 
user" would be his leading characteris- 
tic : it is the triumph of human nature 
in our time, that it has achieved the un- 
derstanding of the forces of nature so 
completely, that whatever material ser- 
vice we wish to perform, we can always 
discover some elementary force in na- 
ture willing to lend us its aid to con- 
quer our difficulty, prouided we will 
study its nature sufficiently to direct it 
into the way in which it can best serve 



209 

our end. The steam-hammer of Nas- 
myth, and the steel ingots of Krupp, are 
symbols of the powerful yet plastic forces 
man wields^ in liis gigantic shape-com- 
pelling processes of manufacture. We 
may sum up the duties of a man of this 
craft by saying that there is scarcely a 
process now performed by animal or man 
which our engineers or machmists of the 
next generation may not be called upon 
to perform better and quicker by ma- 
chines of their own creation. 

Of the engineer and machinist it is 
therefore very easy to indicate the course 
of instruction ; unluckily, much easier 
to indicate than to accomplish. He must 
master all the known powers of material 
nature: heat and cold ; weight and im- 
pulse ; matter in all conditions — liquid, 
solid, and gaseous ; standing or run- 
ning, condensed or rare, adamantine or 
plastic — all must be seen through and 
comprehended by the master of modern 
mechanics. The same laws which gov- 
ern the machinery of the heavens, he 
has to apply to the machinery of the 



210 

earth ; and the same exquisite mechan- 
ism which the Creator has nsed in the 
structure of his animals^ the modern 
mechanician has to apply in the con- 
struction of his microcosms. The- 
modern mechanician who would be 
equal to his work must be prepared to 
shape a tool and frame an engine for the 
execution of tasks which were never 
even dreamt of by the older mechani- 
cians. 



Technical Education of the Mechanical* 
Engineer and Machinist , 

Mechanical Knowledge. Technical Education, 

Shapes and sizes of things . . Geometry. 

Quantities Algebra, 

Numbers . . . Arithmetic, Calculation. 

Weights Laws of Gravity. 

Forces and Motions . . Laws of Dynamics. 

Strengths .... Laws of statics. 

-»T 1, • 1 i Theoretical me- 

Mechanical powers . . ] ^,^^,,5^^ 

Laws of solids . . . Kinematics. 
Laws of liquids, • ) j Hydrostatics and 
Laws of airs and gases, f \ hydrodynamics. 



211 

Mechanical Knowledge. Technical Education. 

Heat, light, elec- 



^ feneration of motion . < tricity, attraction, 

( and repulsion, 

Sources of power . . Chemical physics. 

A T ^. £ ■ { Elements of me- 

Applications of power . ] ^j^^^.^^ 

Mechanical inventions . j ^eSy. ""^ "^^^ 

What Technical Education should we 
give the Civil Engineer^ — The great 
public works of a civilized country have 
always demanded and generally received 
from its Government earnest solicitude 
and forethought. In France, the civil 
engineers are the elite of the nation ; 
the most distinguished pupils in the col- 
leges throughout the country are pro- 
moted into the central technic institu- 
tion of France in Paris ; and out of this 
again, a selection is made of the most 
talented for the '^ corps de genie mari- 
time ;^^ for the ^^ corps de g^nie mili- 
taire;^^ and for the ^^ corps de genie 
civil/^ or ^^ponts et chaussees/^ 

By the great public works of a country 
so much is gained or lost to the public 



212 

well-being, that the most liberal meas- 
ures are justified if they succeed in pro 
viding for its service the profoundest 
knowledge, the most brilliant talent, and 
the highest skill. In the time of the 
Eomans, Europe was covered with those 
wonderful roads which have been per- 
petuated to the present day, and are 
marvels of conception and execution. 
The correction of rivers and supply of 
waters to great cities, the drainage of 
marshes and the irrigation of plains, 
have developed the industry and created 
the wealth of populous countries ; and 
it has depended almost entirely on the 
wisdom or folly of modern Governments, 
in the selection of their engineering sys- 
tems, whether those great engines of 
commerce, the modern railways, have 
been given to a country at small cost, on 
a wise system of development, with gain 
at once to the capitalist, to the trader, 
and the Governmento Where Govern- 
ments have been wise, the railways have 
been well selected, cheaply made, eco- 
nomically and profitably worked. Where 



213 

they have been reckless, ignorant, un- 
wise, railways have been made at great 
cost, extravagantly worked, dear to the 
public, and unprofitable to the capital- 
ist. 

When it is considered that the tele- 
graphs which now work the commerce 
of the world ; the great lines of steam- 
ships which unite its most civilized por- 
tions ; the railways which everywhere 
connect the populous centres of em- 
pires ; the water supply; roads; ports 
and harbors; the direction, training, and 
permanence of our navigable rivers — are 
all works involving enormous cost, in- 
volving the highest national interests, 
and requiring consummate knowledge 
and skill, it is plain that we may judge 
of the wisdom of a nation by the fore- 
sight and forethought it bestows upon 
the rearing, training, and selection of this 
corps d^ elite or corps de genie ; and it is 
therefore self-evident that, in a technical 
university, the pupils of this section 
must find a prominent place. For Eng- 
land especially, with her wide-spread do- 



214 

minions, it is evident that the youthful 
engineer should be prepared to find a 
sphere of usefulness in any quarter of 
the globe, and to carry with him a mas- 
tery of all the resources of modern 
science and skill. 



Engineering Knowledge. 
Laws of water— standing 

and running. 
Laws of dead matter . . 

Laws of fixed and mov- 
ing bodies 

Building of bridges and 
ways. 

Surveying, mapping, se- 
lection of routes. 

lEh'ection of buildings c . 

Estimates of cost and pro- 
duction of public works. 

Steam-ships and machin- 
ery. 



Technical Education. 
Hydrostatics and hydrau- 
lics. 

Strength and resistance 
of materials. 

Statics and dynamics. 

Theory of structures in 
stone, timber, and iron. 

Geometry, trigonometry, 
and surveying. 

Theory of beautj^ and 
ugliness. 

Prices, wages, and econ- 
omical valuations. 

Naval architecture and 
mechanical engineer- 
ing. 



To a great extent, the civil engineer 
must have also the same education as the 
mechanical engineer. 

The proposed studies are thus de- 
fined I 



215 



THE SCHOOL OF MECHANICS. 



Pure Science. 

Higher Geometry. Higher Dynamics. 

Algebra. '* Energetics. 

" Arithmetic. ** Chemistry. 

Statics. " Metallurgy. 



Practical Applications, 

Descriptive Geometry. 
Constructive Geometry. 
Geometric Movements. 
Sources of Materials. 
Properties of Materials. 
Strength of Materials. 
Elements of Mechanics. 
Structural Mechanics. 
Machinery and Tools. 
Engines and Prime Movers. 
Economics of Work. 
Endurance of Machinery. 
Machine Shops and Buildings. 
Mechanical Manufactures. 
Political Economy. 
Workshop Economy. 
Principles of Design. 



216 

In the Drawing Office. 
In the Collection of Machines. 
In the Collection of Machine Materials. 
In the Collection of Raw Materials of Mana 
factures. 
In the Collection of Engines, etc. 
In Mechanical Experiment. 
In the Factory. 

Round the Tour of Home Manufactories. 
In Foreign Travel. 



THE SCHOOL OF CI YIL CONSTRUCTION^ 

Engineering. 
Pure Science. 

Higher Geometry. Higher Energetics. 

** Algebra. ** Hydrology. 

*' Arithmetic. *' Chemistry. 

** Statics. ** Geology. 

'* Dynamics. " Crystallogy. 

Practical Applications. 

Engines and Prime Movers. 
Theory of Vehicles and Locomotive Ma- 
chines. 
Theory of Ships and Steam-boats. 



217 

Chemistry of Building Materials. 
Geology of Stones antl Cements. 
Mineralogy and Metallurgy. 
Stability of Foundations. 
Building Combinations of Materials. 
Sources of Materials of Construction. 
Theory of Bridges, Roofs, and Tunnels. 
Constructive Geometry. 
Graphic Getnnetiy and Surveying. 
Descriptive Geometry. 
Perspective Geometry. 
Geometric Movements. 
Strengths of Materials. 
Elements of Mechanics. 
Machines and Tools. 
Theory of Rivers. 
Theory of Tides and Waves. 
Theory of Roads, Railroads, and Canals. 
Principles of Architectural Design. 
Principles of Metallurgy. 
Economics of Construction. 
Endurance of Structures, Engines, Ma* 
chines, and Implements. 

Work, 

In the Drawing Office. 

In the Collection of Engineering Models. 

In the Collection of Building Materials. 

In the Collection of Machines 

In the Laboratory of Strength of Materials. 



21S 

In the Chemical L.Mboralory. 
In Engiueering- Experiment. 
In tlie FacloiN . 
On the \Vork>i. 
In Foreign Travel, 



VALUABLE 

SCIENTIFIC BOOKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 
23 Murray and 27 Warren Streets, 

NEW YORK. 



OLEVEISTGER, S. R. A Treatise on the Method 
of Government Surveying as Prescribed by 
the U. S. Congress and Commissioner of tiie 
General Land Office, with Complete Mathe- 
matical, Astronomical and Practical Instruc- 
tions for the Use of the United States Sur- 
veyors in the field. 16mo, morocco 12.50 

DORR, B. F. The Surveyor's Guide and Pocket 
Table Book. 18mo, morocco flaps. Second 
edition. $2. 00 

DUBOIS, A. J. The New Method of Graphic 
Statics. With 60 illustrations. 8vo, cloth, $1.50 

EDDY, Prof. H. T. Researches in Graphical 
Statics. Embracing New Constructions in 
Graphical Statics, a New General Method in 
Graphical Statics, and the Theory of Internal 
Stress in Graphical Statics. 8vo, cloth. $1.50 

Maximum Stresses under Concentrated 

Loads. Treated graphically. Illustrated. 
8vo, cloth .$1.50 

GURDEN, RICHARD LLOYD. Traverse 
Tables : computed to 4 places Decimals for 
every ^ of angle up to 100 of Distance. For 
the use of Surveyors and Engineers. New 
x^dition. Folio, half mo $7.50 



O. VAN NOSTRAND C0MPA:NY. 

HERRMANN, GUSTAV. The Graphical Statics 
of Mechanism. A Guide for the Use of Ma- 
chinists, Architects, and Engineers : and also 
a Text-Book for Technical Schools. Trans- 
lated and annotated by A. P. Smith, M.E. 
12mo, cloth, 7 folding plates $2.00 

HENRICI. OLAUS. Skeleton Structurer, Ap- 
plied to the Building of Steel and Iron Bridges. 
Illustrated $1.50 

HOWARD, C. R. Earthwork Mensuration on 
the Basis of the Prismoidal Formulae. Con- 
taining Simple and Labor-saving Method of 
obtaining Prismoidal Contents directly from 
End Areas. Illustrated by Examples and ac- 
companied by Plain Rules for Practical Uses. 
Iliustraied. *^8vo, cloth $1.50 

JOYNSON, F. H. The Metals Used in Construc- 
tion. Iron, Steel, Bessemer Metal, etc. Illus- 
trated. 12mo, cloth 75 

Designing and Construction of Machine 

Gearing, illustrated. 8vo, cloth $2.00 

KANSAS CITY BRIDGE, THE. With an Ac- 
count of the Regimen of the Missouii River 
and a Description of the Methods Used for 
Founding in that River. By O. Chanute, 
Chief Engineer, and George Morrison. Assist- 
ant Engineer. Illustrated with 5 lithographic 
views and 12 plates of plans. 4to, cloth, 4^6.00 

MERRILL, Col. WM. E., U.S.A. Iron Truss 
Bridges for Railroads. The method of calcu- 
lating strains in Trusses, with a careful com- 
parison of the most prominent Trusses in 
reference to economy in combinations, etc. 
Illustrated. 4to, cloth. Fourth edition. .$5.00 



D. YAN :n'ostrand comfajsy. 

MORRIS, E. Easy Rules for the Measurement 
of Earthworks by means of the Prismoidal 
Formula. 8vo, cloth, illustrated |1.50 

PLYMPTOJSr, GEO. W. The Aneroid Barome- 
ter : its Construction and Use. Compiled from 
several sources. 16mo, boards, illus 50 

POCKET LOGARITHMS, to Four Places of 
Decimals, including Logarithms of Numbers, 
and Logarithmic Sines and Tangents to Single 
Minutes. To which is added a Table of 
Natural Sines, Tangents, and Co-Tangents. 
16mo, boards 50 

RANKINE, W. J. MACQUORN, C.E., LL.D., 
F.R.S. Civil Engineering. Comprising En- 
gineering Surveys, Earthwork, Foundations, 
Masonry, Carpentry, Metal-Work, Roads, 
Railways, Canals, Rivers, Water-Works, Har- 
bors, etc. With numerous tables and illus- 
trations. Seventeenth edition. Crown 8vo, 
cloth $6.50 

Machinery and Millwork. Comprising the 

Geometry, Motions, Work, Strength, Con- 
struction, and Objects of Machines, etc. Illus- 
trated witk nearly 300 woodcuts. Sixth 
edition. Crown 8vo, cloth |5.00 

Useful Rules and Tables for Engineers and 

Others. A¥ith appendix, tables, tests, and 
formulae for the use of Electrical Engineers. 
Comprising Submarine Electrical Engineer- 
ing, Electric Lighting, and Transmission of 
Power. By Andrew Jamieson, C.E., F.R.S.E. 
Seventh edition. Crown Svo, cloth $4.00 

A Mechanical Text-Book. By Prof. Mac- 

quorn Rankine and E. F. Bamber, C.E. With 
numerous illustrations. Third edition . . $3. 50 

RIPPER. WILLIAM. A Course of Instruction 
in Machine Drawins; and Desio;u for Techni- 



D. VAN NOSTKAMD COMPANY. 

cal Schools and Engineer Studenis. With 5^ 
pLites and numerous explanatory engravings. 
Folio, cloth $7.50 

ROEBLING, J. A. Long and Short Span Hail- 
way Bridges. Illustrated with large copper- 
plate engravings of plans and views. Imperial 
folio, cloth $25.00 

SCRIBNER, J. M. Engineers' and Mechanics' 
Companion. Comprising U. S. Weights and 
Measures, Mensuration of Superfices and 
Solids, Tables of Squares and Cubes, Square 
and Cube Roots, Circumference and Areas of 
Circles, the Mechanical Powers, Centres of 
Gravity, Gravitation of Bodies, Pendulums, 
Specific Gravity of Bodies, Strength, Weight, 
and Crush of Materials, AVater-Wheels, Hy- 
drostatics, Hydraulics, Statics. Centres of Per- 
cussion and Gyration, Friction Heat, Tables 
of the Weight of Metals, Scantling, etc., 
Steam and the Steam-Engine. Nineteenth 
edition, revised. 16mo, full morocco. . .$1.50 

SHIELDS, J. E. Notes on Engineering Con- 
struction. Embracing discussions of the prin- 
ciples involved, and Descriptions of the Mate- 
rial employed in Tunnelling, Bridging, Canal 
and Road Building, etc. 12mo, cloth.. $1.50 

^HREVE, S. H. A Treatise on the Strength of 
Bridges and Roofs. Comprising the Deter- 
mination of Algebraic formulas for Strains in 
Horizontal, Inclined, or Rafter, Triangular, 
Bowstring, Lenticular, and other Trusses, from 
fixed and moving loads, wiih practical appli- 
cations and examples, for the use of Students 
and Engineers. 87 woodcut illustrations. 
jFourth edition. 8vo, cloth $8.50 



D. VAN NOSTKAND COMPANY. 

SHUNK, W. F. The Field Engineer. A Han- 
dy Book of Practice iu the Survey, Location, 
and Truck-work of Railroads, containing a 
large collection of Kules and Tables, original 
and selected, applicable to both the Standard 
and Narrow Gauge, and prepared with special 
reference to the wants of the young Engineer. 
Ninth edition. Revised and Enlarged. 12mo, 
morocco, tucks $2.50 

SIMMS, F. W. A Treatise on the Principles 
and Practice of Levelling. Showing its 
application to purposes of Railway Engineer- 
ing, and the Construction of Roads, etc. Re- 
vised and corrected, with the addition of Mr. 
Laws' Practical Examples for setting out Rail 
way Curves. Illustrated. 8vo, cloth. . .$2.50 

SMITH, ISAAC W., C.E. The Theory of De- . 
flections and of Latitudes and Departures. 
With special applications to Curvilinear Sur- 
veys, for Alignments of Railway Tracks. 
Illustrated. 16mo, morocco, tucks. . . .$3.00 

■STILES, AMOS. Tables for Field Engineers. 
Designed for use in the field. Tables contain- 
ing all the functions of a one degree curve, 
from which a corresponding one can be found 
for any required degree. Also, Tables of 
Natural Sines and Tangents. 12mo, morocco, 
tucks $2.00 

.STONEY, B. D. The Theory of Stresses in 
Girders and Similar Structures. With obser- 
vations on the application of Theory to Prac* 
tice, and Tables of Strength, and other prop- 
erties of Materials. New revised edition, with 
numerous additions on Graphic Statics, Pil- 
lars, Steel, Wind Pressure. Oscillating Stresses, 
Working Loads, Riveting, Strength and Tests 
of Materials. 8vo, 777 pages, 143 illustrations, 
and 5 folding plates $12.50 



THE VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. 

No. 60.— STRENGTH OF WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE MEM- 
BERS. By S. W. Robinson, C.E. 

No. 61. -POTABLE WATER AND THE DIFFERENT 
METHODS OF DETECTING IMPURITIES. By 
Charles W. Folkhard. 

No. 62.— THE THEORY OF THE GAS - ENGINE. By 
Dougald Clerk. Second edition. With additional 
matter. Edited by F. E. Idell, M.E. 

No. 63.— HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SANITARY PLUMB- 
ING. By W. P. Gerhard. Fourth edition. Re- 
vised. 

No. 64.— ELECTRO-MAGNETS. By Th. du Moneel. 2d re- 
vised edition. 

No. 65.— POCKET LOGARITHMS TO FOUR PLACES OF 
DECIMALS. 

No. 66.-DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY. By S. P. 
Thompson. With notes by F. L. Pope. Third 
edition. 

No. 67.— HYDRAULIC TABLES BXSED ON " KUTTER'S 
FORMULA." By P. J. Flynn. 

No. 68. -STEAM-HEATING. By Robert Briggs. Second 
edition, revised, with additions by A. R. Wolff. 

No. 69.— CHEMICAL PROBLEMS. By Prof. J. C. Foye. 
Second edition, revised and enlarged. 

No. 70.— EXPLOSIVES AND EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS. 
By M. Bertholet. 

No. 71.— DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. By John Hopkinson, 

J. A. Schoolbred, and R. E. Day. 
No. 72.-TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING. By George J. 

Specht, Prof. A. S. Hardy, John B. McMaster, and 

H. F. Wailing. 

No. 73.— SYMBOLIC ALGEBRA: OR, THE ALGEBRA OF 
ALGEBRAIC NUMBERS. By Prof. W. Cain. 

No. 74.— TESTING MACHINES : THEIR HISTORY, CON- 
STRUCTION, AND USE. By Arthur V.Abbott. 

No. 75.— RECENT PROGRESS IN DYNAMO-ELECTRIC 
MACHINES. Being a Supplement to Dynamo- 
Electric Machineiy. By Prof. Sylvanus P. 
Thompson. 

No. 76.— MODERN REPRODUCTIVE GRAPHIC PRO- 
CESSES. By Lieut. James S. Pettit, U.S.A. 

No. 77.-STADIA SURVEYING. The Theory of Stadia 
Measurements. By Arthur Winslow. 

No. 78.— THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR, AND ITS 
USE. By W. B. Le Van. 

No. 79.-THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH. By Frank C. 
Roberts, C.E. 

No. 80.-HEALTHY FOUNDATIONS FOR HOUSES. By 
Glenn Brown. 



THE VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. 



No. 81. -WATER METERS : COMPARATIVE TESTS OF 
ACCURACY, DELIVERY, ETC. Distinctive 
features of the Worthiugtou, Kenaedy, Siemens, 
and liesse meters. By Ross E. Browne. 

No. 82.— THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER BY THE USE 
OF AMISEPTIC8. By Samuel Bagster Boul- 
ton, C.E. 

No. 83.- MECHANICAL INTEGRATORS. By Prof. Henry 

S. H. Siiaw, C. E. 

No. 84.^ FLOW OF WATER IN OPEN CHANNELS, PIPES, 
CONDUITS, S WERS, ETC. With Tables. By 
P. J. Fiynn, CE. 

No. 85.— THE LUMINIFEROUS ^THER By Prof, de 
Volson Wood 

No. 86— HAND-BOOK OF MINERALOGY; DETERMINA- 
TION AND DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS 
FOUND IN THE UNITED STATES. By Prof. 
J C. Foye. 

No. 87.— TREATISE ON THE THEORY OF THE CON- 
STRUCTION OF HELICOIDAL OBLIQUE 
ARCHP:S By John L. Culley, C.E. 

No. 88.— BEAMS AND GIRDERS. Practical Formulas for 
their Resistance. By P. H. Philbrick. 

No. 89.-MODERN GUN COTTON : ITS MANUFACTURE, 
PROPERTIES, AND ANALY^SIS. By Lieut. 
John P. Wisser, U.S.A. 

No. 90.— ROTARY MOTION AS APPLIED TO THE GYRO- 
SCOPE. By Gen. J. G. Barnard. 

No. 91.— LEVELING : BAROMETRIC. TRIGONOMETRIC, 
AND SPIRIT. By Prof. I. O. Baker. 

No. 92 —PETROLEUM : ITS PRODUCTION AND USE. By 
Boverton Redwood, F.l.C, F.C.S. 

No. 93.— RECENT PRACTICE IN THE SANITARY DRAIN- 
AGE OF BUILDINGS. W^ith Memoranda on the 
Cost of Plumbing Work. Second edition, revised. 
By William Paul Gerhard, C.E. 

No. 94.— THE TREATMENT OF SEWAGE. By Dr. C. 
Meymott Tidy. 

No. 95. -PLATE GIRDER CONSTRUCTION. By Isami 
Hiroi, C.E. 

No. 96.— ALTERNATE CURRENT MACHINERY. BjGis- 
bert Kapp, Assoc. M. Inst., C.E. 

No. 97.-THE DISPOSAL OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE. By 
W. Paul Gerhard, Sanitary Edgineer. 

No. 98.— PRACTICAL DYNAMO-BUILDING FOR AMA- 
TEURS. HOW TO WIND FOR ANY OUTPUT. 
By Frederick W^alker. Fully illustrated. 

No. 99.— TRIPPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES AND ENGINE 
TRIALS. By Prof. Osborne Reynolds. Edited, 
with notes, etc., by F. E. Idell, M.E. 



No. lOO.-HOW TO BECOME AN ENGINEER, or the Theo- 
retical and Practical Training necessary in fitting 
for the duties of the Civil Engineer. By Prof. 
Geo. W. Plympton. 

No. 101.— THE SEXTANT, and other Reflecting Mathemati- 
cal Instruments. With Practical Hints for their 
adjustment and use. By F. R. Brainard, U. S. 
Navy. 




THE 



L~-aN THE PHI 
Prof< T. H. HUXLET, LL.D T.K.S. "With m introvlvK 
tlon hj a Professor in Yale College. s2mo, pp. o^'. 
Paper Covers. Price 25 ceots. 

iL— THE CORRELATION OE VITAL ANI> 
PHYSICAL FORCES. By Prof. Gkohgb F. B abk icK , 
M.Dp of Yale College. S6pp, Paper Covers. Price .!5o 

in.— AS REGARDS PliOTOPI. ASM, Id relat: ot, 
to Prof. Huxley's Physical Basis of Lifo.'-» By J. 
HtJTcnisOK Stirling, F.R.C.S, pp.TSL Price 25 cectR, 

IV.— <m THE HYPOTHESIS Oli^ EVOLtTTION, 
rnysical and Metaphysical By Prof EdwAhD D. 
GovK, 12mo., 72 pp. Paper Covers. Prico 25 orjjts. 

V.—SCIENTIFIO ADDRESSES:—! '•. i/i<i Me^ 

iAoiU and Tendencies of Pkydcal Jnvestto, , u>ft , 2 . (H 

Baz9 and Dust. 3. On the JSciefififr. I^e of the bK^irji- 

nation. By Prof. John Tyndall, Jr.R.S. l^'mo, 74 

. pp. Paper Covers. Price 25 cents, Flex»Clotli. r»(f c t.s. 

NO. VI.— NATURAL SELEOTIOiT AS API LIED 
TO MAI?. Br Alfred RusseIiL Wai.l.aok. XJUia 
pamphlftt treats (1) of the Developmont 
Races un'ier tbolaw of selection ; (2) triQiiin| 
ijral Selection as applied to man. 54 pp. Pri<i| 

NO. Vli.~ SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 
tnres by Profs. Roscoe, Huggins, and Loci 
ly illnstrated. 88 pp. Paper Covers. Prkr^ 

HO. Vm.— THE SUN. A sk^Um of ^h ^ rti 
state of scientific opinion as re>2;'^rds th:'s \\ 
account of the mostrecer!; d>s;overies ium 
observation. By Prof . 0. A. Young, Ph.J , 
mouth College. 58 pp. Paper Cc; «^ers. Piriai 

NO. IX.-THE EARTH A GREAT MAC ^ 
A. M. Mayer, Ph.D., of Stevens Institute." 
rtrofoundly interesting lectaro on the subject of 
netisij. 72 pp. Paper Covers, i^rice 2^ centi^. 1 
iVIe Cloth, 50 cents. 

NO X.— IVIYSTERIBa OF THE VOK 
EAR. By Prof. O. N. Rood, Columbia 06l|| 
York. One of the most interestlDg lectures '< 
ovor delivered. Original djscoveritcj, bnlliant ei 
monts. Beautifully iUus. 5J8 pp. Paper C-ovors. 25 



